Gan Ning

Gan Ning (died c. 220), style name Xingba, was a military general serving under the warlord Sun Quan in the late Eastern Han Dynasty. Originally a pirate notorious for his plundering and murderous ways, Gan Ning gave up the life of a marauder in the late 190s and became a subordinate of Huang Zu, the Administrator of a commandery in present-day east-central Hubei. Disheartened by Huang Zu's indifferent attitude towards him, Gan Ning eventually left Huang and made his way into Wu territory (present-day southeastern China), where he found his calling and became a military officer under the warlord Sun Quan. Throughout his years of service under Sun Quan until his death, Gan Ning fought in numerous battles for his lord, including: Jiangxia (208), Red Cliffs (208–209), Xiaoyao Ford (214–215) and Ruxu (217).

Early life
Gan Ning was a native of Linjiang (臨江), Ba commandery (巴郡), which is in present-day Zhong County, Chongqing. His ancestral home was actually in Nanyang, Henan, but his ancestors moved to Ba commandery. As a youth, Gan Ning was once recommended to take up the position of an Assistant (丞) in the office of Shu commandery (蜀郡) but he resigned and went home after serving for a short while.

In his younger days, Gan Ning was known to be very energetic and eager to behave like a youxia. He gathered a group of wayward young men, with him as their chief, and engaged in piracy. They were armed with either bows or crossbows, wore feathers in their hats and tied bells on their bodies. The ringing of the bells alerted people to the presence of Gan Ning and his gang. Gan Ning's plundering and murderous ways earned him infamy throughout Ba commandery. On land, he and his gang travelled by riding on horses or in chariots in a certain formation; on water, they sailed on light vessels linked together. His followers were dressed in elaborate and flamboyant garments, attracting much attention wherever they went. When they stopped at a certain location, they would use silk to tie their boats to the jetties, and when they were departing, they would cut the silk and abandon it as a showcase of their extravagance.

Those who had dealings with Gan Ning included some local officials. These people treated Gan Ning generously, and in return, he befriended them and showed genuine feelings towards them. On the other hand, those who treated him badly suffered the fate of being robbed of their possessions by him and his gang, and even government officials were not spared. Gan Ning led the life of a marauder for over 20 years.

Around 194, when Liu Yan, the Inspector (刺史) of Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing), died, Gan Ning rebelled against Liu Yan's son and successor, Liu Zhang, together with Liu He (劉闔), an official from Jing Province (covering present-day Hubei and Hunan), and Liu Zhang's subordinates Shen Mi (沈彌) and Lou Fa (婁發). However, they failed and were forced to flee to Jing Province.

Service under Liu Biao and Huang Zu
Gan Ning eventually decided to stop plundering and pillaging. He read some books, including ideas from the Hundred Schools of Thought. He later brought along 800 men to join Liu Biao, the Governor (牧) of Jing Province (covering present-day Hubei and Hunan), and was stationed at Nanyang commandery in the province. Liu Biao had a scholar-gentry background and was not proficient in military affairs. Around that time, chaos had broken out all around China as contending warlords fought each other for territorial gains and hegemony over the empire. Gan Ning observed that Liu Biao was doomed to failure and was worried that he would be affected, so he and his followers planned to head east towards the Wu region, which was under the control of the warlord Sun Ce (and later under Sun Ce's successor Sun Quan). They reached Jiangxia (江夏; commandery capital in present-day Yunmeng County, Xiaogan, Hubei) commandery in the eastern part of Jing Province but were unable to cross the border into Wu territory, so Gan Ning remained at Jiangxia and became a subordinate of the commandery's Administrator (太守) Huang Zu. Huang Zu did not recognise Gan Ning's abilities and treated the latter coldly for three years.

In 203, Sun Quan led his forces to attack Huang Zu, whom he deemed responsible for the death of his father Sun Jian at the Battle of Xiangyang in 191, culminating in the Battle of Xiakou. Huang Zu was defeated and was being pursued by the enemy. Gan Ning, being a skilled archer, led a detachment of troops as backup, and he came to the rescue. He fired an arrow which killed Ling Cao, a Colonel (校尉) under Sun Quan, thus allowing Huang Zu to retreat safely. Huang Zu did not change his attitude towards Gan Ning after the incident. Su Fei, an Area Commander (都督) under Huang Zu, recommended Gan Ning as a talent to his superior, but was ignored. Huang Zu even attempted to entice Gan Ning's followers to abandon their leader and serve him, and some agreed.

Gan Ning was unhappy with Huang Zu and wanted to leave the latter, but was worried that Huang would not permit, so he became very frustrated. Su Fei was aware of Gan Ning's intention, so he invited the latter for drinks and said, "I've recommended you to Huang Zu many times, but he doesn't want to give you important responsibilities. Days pass by and people become older. You should make plans for the future and find someone who truly appreciates your talents." Gan Ning paused for a moment before replying, "That's what I've in mind, but I can't find an excuse to leave." Su Fei then said, "I'll suggest to Huang Zu to appoint you as the Chief (長) of Zhu (邾; northwest of present-day Huanggang, Hubei). The initial stage is difficult, but after you've reached there, it'll be much easier for you to decide where to go from there." Gan Ning replied, "Great." Huang Zu approved Su Fei's suggestion. Gan Ning managed to gather a few hundred men who were willing to follow him, and they headed towards Zhu.

Battle of Jiangxia
When Gan Ning brought his followers to Wu, Zhou Yu and Lü Meng recommended him to serve their lord, Sun Quan. Sun Quan felt that Gan Ning was extraordinary and treated Gan as though Gan was an old subordinate of his. Gan Ning proposed, "The Han Dynasty is declining day by day. Cao Cao is becoming increasingly arrogant and he'll eventually usurp the throne. The southern territories in Jing Province are accessible in terms of travelling by land or water. The western domain of the Empire lies there. Based on my observation of Liu Biao, he'll not last long while his sons are of inferior quality and cannot inherit his jurisdiction. My lord, you should take control of these lands soon, lest Cao Cao seizes them later. The best plan now is to attack Huang Zu first. Huang Zu is old and muddleheaded. He lacks funding and supplies, cheats those around them, and is only concerned with making personal gains. His subordinates are already unhappy with him because of his overbearing demands. His warships and military equipment are damaged and have not been repaired; he neglects agriculture; his army is ill-disciplined. If you attack him now, you'll surely win him. After defeating him, you can move west further and take control of Chu Pass (楚關) and expand your domain and influence. After that, you can prepare to attack Bashu (巴蜀; covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing)."

Sun Quan wanted to follow Gan Ning's plan. At that time, Zhang Zhao (another official under Sun Quan) was also present, and he objected, "The territories in Wu have not been completely pacified yet. If we really proceed with this campaign, I'm afraid there will be chaos." Gan Ning rebuked Zhang Zhao, "Our lord has entrusted responsibilities to you as if you were Xiao He. If you were to remain in charge and yet fear that there will be chaos, how can you expect to emulate the people in the past?" Sun Quan then raised his cup of wine to Gan Ning and said, "Xingba, I've decided to put you in charge of the campaign this year just as I offer this cup of wine to you. You should strive your best to come up with strategies and ensure that we overcome Huang Zu. When you've earned merit, you won't need to take Zhang Zhao's words to heart."

In the spring of 208, Sun Quan led his forces west to attack Huang Zu at Jiangxia commandery (江夏郡; commandery capital in present-day Yunmeng County, Xiaogan, Hubei) and succeeded in defeating and capturing the latter alive, as well as taking control over the latter's troops. Gan Ning was then placed in command of some soldiers and was ordered to garrison at Dangkou (當口).

Saving Su Fei
Prior to the campaign, Sun Quan had two boxes made for the purpose of containing the heads of Huang Zu and Su Fei. After Huang Zu's defeat, Su Fei was also captured and he immediately asked someone to inform Gan Ning. Gan Ning said, "If Su Fei did not speak up, I would have forgotten about him." Later, when Sun Quan and his officers were celebrating the victory, Gan Ning left his seat and knelt down before his lord. He kowtowed until his face was covered in blood and with tears in his eyes, he pleaded with Sun Quan, "I owe Su Fei a favour. If not for him, I would have been dead and my body abandoned in a ravine. I would not have been able to serve under you. Now, even though Su Fei's actions warrant death, I still hope that you can spare him." Sun Quan was moved and he asked, "What if he leaves after I spare his life?" Gan Ning replied, "Su Fei will be grateful if he is spared from death. He'll not leave even if you try to chase him away. Why will he still seek his own doom? If he really does that, I'm willing to use my head to replace his in the box." Sun Quan then pardoned Su Fei.

Red Cliffs campaign
In the winter of 208–209, Gan Ning fought in the Battle of Red Cliffs under Zhou Yu's command against the forces of Cao Cao, defeating the enemy at Wulin (烏林). Gan Ning also participated in the Battle of Jiangling, a follow-up to Red Cliffs. Sun Quan's forces, led by Zhou Yu, attacked Cao Cao's general Cao Ren at Nan commandery (南郡; commandery capital in present-day Jiangling County, Jingzhou, Hubei) but were unable to conquer the city. Gan Ning suggested to lead a separate force to capture Yiling (夷陵; around present-day Yichang, Hubei). He had only a few hundred soldiers with him when he reached Yiling and the strength of his army increased to around 1,000 after he recruited some men in the area. Cao Ren sent 5,000–6,000 troops to besiege Gan Ning at Yiling. The enemy built high towers, from which they rained arrows upon Yiling. Gan Ning's men were all terrified but Gan remained calm. He sent a messenger to request aid from Zhou Yu, who heeded Lü Meng's plan and led reinforcements to help Gan Ning, leaving behind Ling Tong to defend their position. Zhou Yu, Lü Meng and the others succeeded in lifting the siege at Yiling, while Ling Tong managed to hold his ground well for that period of time. Eventually, Cao Ren was ordered to abandon Nan commandery because the prolonged war had drained much manpower and resources on Cao Cao's side, and this resulted in the capture of the commandery by Sun Quan's forces.

Guan Yu's shallows
Around 214 or 215, Sun Quan had disputes with his ally Liu Bei over the division of southern Jing Province between them. Sun Quan sent Lü Meng and Ling Tong to seize the three commanderies of Changsha (長沙), Lingling (零陵), and Guiyang (桂陽) from Liu Bei, and then ordered Lu Su to station at Yiyang (益陽; around present-day Yiyang, Hunan) as a precaution against any retaliation by Liu Bei's general Guan Yu, who was in charge of his lord's territories in southern Jing Province. Gan Ning joined Lu Su at Yiyang.

Guan Yu claimed that he had 30,000 troops. He selected 5,000 elite soldiers, headed to the upstream shallows located some 10 li away from Yiyang, and planned to cross the shallows at night. Lu Su held a discussion with his subordinates on how to deal with Guan Yu. At that time, Gan Ning had only 300 men under him and he told Lu Su, "If you give me another 500 troops, I'll go to confront Guan Yu. I assure you that Guan Yu will not dare to cross the waters when he hears of my approach. But if he does, I'll capture him." Lu Su then chose 1,000 troops and put them under Gan Ning's command. Gan Ning headed towards Guan Yu's position at night. As Gan Ning expected, Guan Yu did not cross the shallows and instead set up camps there. That place was thus named 'Guan Yu's Shallows' (關羽瀨).

Sun Quan was pleased with Gan Ning's achievement, so he appointed the latter as the Administrator (太守) of Xiling (西陵) and let him oversee the counties of Yangxin (陽新) and Xiazhi (下雉).

Battle of Xiaoyao Ford
In early 215, Gan Ning was involved in an attack on Cao Cao's garrison at Huan (皖; or Huancheng, in present-day Qianshan County, Anqing, Anhui) and was in charge of the unit assigned to scale the fortress's walls. Armed with a chain, he was the first to climb up the walls, and his men killed Huancheng's defending commander Zhu Guang (朱光). Lü Meng earned the top credit while Gan Ning received the second highest credit for the victory. Gan Ning was promoted to "General Who Breaks and Charges" (折衝將軍).

Later that year, Gan Ning participated in Sun Quan's campaign to seize control of Hefei, which was defended by Cao Cao's general Zhang Liao. Sun Quan was unable to capture Hefei after besieging the city for days and suffering defeats in the initial skirmishes, and he eventually withdrew his forces when a plague broke out in his army. Sun Quan's other units retreated first, while Sun remained behind at Xiaoyao Ford (逍遙津) with only about 1,000 men and a few officers (including Lü Meng, Jiang Qin, Ling Tong and Gan Ning). When Zhang Liao saw that, he seized the opportunity to launch a devastating counterattack, throwing Sun Quan's forces into confusion. Gan Ning led a group of archers to fire arrows at the enemy while Ling Tong and the others fought fiercely to protect their lord. Gan Ning shouted at the men to beat the war drums and blow the horns loudly to raise the army's morale. Sun Quan eventually succeeded in escaping but his forces sustained very heavy losses. He later praised Gan Ning for the latter's actions in the battle.

Battle of Ruxu
Two years later in 217, Cao Cao personally led an army, claimed to be 400,000 strong, to attack Sun Quan's garrison at Ruxu (濡須). Sun Quan led about 70,000 troops to counter the enemy. Gan Ning commanded the 3,000-strong vanguard. Sun Quan gave a secret order for Gan Ning to attack the enemy under the cover of nightfall, so Gan selected 100 elite soldiers. Before the battle, Sun Quan sent wine and various dishes to Gan Ning, who gave them to his men. After the feast, Gan Ning poured wine into a silver bowl and drank two bowls before offering it to an officer. The officer knelt down and did not dare to take the bowl, so Gan Ning drew his sword, placed it on his lap and said, "You hold our lord in regard but not me? I do not fear death. Why do you alone fear death?" The officer saw that Gan Ning was very stern so he obliged and drank from it and then ordered each soldier to drink one bowl of wine."

When it was nearing midnight, Gan Ning and his 100 men raided Cao Cao's camp, destroying some defensive structures and killing dozens of enemy soldiers. Cao Cao's troops were shocked so they sounded the alarm and lit up the entire camp with torches. By then, Gan Ning and his men had returned safely to their own camp, where they beat their drums, blew their horns, and shouted "Wansui!"

That same night, Gan Ning went to see Sun Quan, who was delighted and said to him, "Were your actions enough to frighten the old man (Cao Cao)? I had the opportunity of witnessing your valour." Sun Quan then rewarded Gan Ning with 1,000 rolls of silk and 100 swords. He also remarked, "Mengde (Cao Cao) has Zhang Liao while I've Xingba. I can match him." Cao Cao withdrew his armies from Ruxu after slightly more than a month. Gan Ning was held in even higher regard among Sun Quan's forces and the number of troops under his command was increased by 2,000.

Death
When Gan Ning died, Sun Quan deeply lamented his death. No further details about Gan Ning's death were provided in his official biography in the Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi). However, the Australian sinologist Rafe de Crespigny estimated Gan Ning's death year to be around 220 CE.

Family
Gan Ning's ancestor was Gan Mao (甘茂), a chancellor of the Qin state in the Warring States period.

Gan Ning's son, Gan Gui (甘瓌), was exiled to Kuaiji (會稽; present-day Shaoxing, Zhejiang) for committing an offence and died not long later.

Gan Shu (甘述), another son of Gan Ning, served as an Imperial Secretary (尚書) in the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period. Gan Shu's son, Gan Chang (甘昌), served as a Crown Prince's Tutor (太子太傅) in Wu. Gan Chang had a son — Gan Zhuo (甘卓), style name "Jisi" (季思). Gan Zhuo served as "Senior General Who Guards the South" (鎮南大將軍) and "Governor of Jing Province" (荊州牧) during the Jin Dynasty.

Evaluation
Although Gan Ning was rough and murderous in his ways, he was also jovial and gregarious, and was capable of using strategy. He respected persons of virtue and had little regard for monetary wealth. He treated his men well and they were also willing to fight for him with their lives.

Conflict with Ling Tong
Ling Tong (Ling Cao's son) had never forgiven Gan Ning for killing his father at the Battle of Xiakou in 203. Gan Ning was always on the defensive against Ling Tong and he avoided meeting the latter. Sun Quan also ordered Ling Tong not to seek vengeance on Gan Ning. There was one incident during a banquet held in Lü Meng's house, which both Gan Ning and Ling Tong attended. When Ling Tong was performing a sword dance to entertain the guests, Gan Ning stood up and said, "I can also perform with my pair of jis." Lü Meng told Gan Ning, "You may be good in performing, but you're not as good as me." He then drew his sword and carried a shield and stood between Ling Tong and Gan Ning, separating the two of them. When Sun Quan heard about the incident, he had Gan Ning relocated to a garrison at Banzhou (半州).

Dispute with Lü Meng
Once, one of Gan Ning's servants committed an offence and was afraid of being punished so he sought shelter under Lü Meng. Lü Meng feared that Gan Ning would kill the servant so he did not send the servant away. Later, when Gan Ning visited Lü Meng's house and brought along gifts for the latter's mother, Lü brought the servant out to meet Gan, and Gan promised to spare the servant. When Gan Ning left, he reneged on his word as he tied the servant to a tree and personally killed the latter by firing arrows at him. After that, he went back to his boat and ordered his men to lengthen the hawsers while he undressed and rested inside the cabin.

Lü Meng was furious when he heard that Gan Ning had killed the servant so he gathered his own men and prepared to attack Gan. Gan Ning continued resting when he heard of Lü Meng's approach. Lü Meng's mother came out of the house barefooted and chided her son, "The lord (Sun Quan) treats you like his family and entrusts you with important responsibilities. How can you kill Gan Ning just because you've a private feud with him? If Gan Ning dies, even if the lord does not inquire into the incident, you've already overstepped your role as a subject." Lü Meng was a filial son so his anger subsided after he heard his mother. He then went to Gan Ning's boat, laughed and said, "Xingba, my mother is treating you to a meal. Come up quickly!" Gan Ning wept and replied, "I've let you down." He then followed Lü Meng to meet the latter's mother and they feasted for the whole day.

In fiction
Gan Ning appeared as a character in the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong, which romanticises the historical events before and during the Three Kingdoms period. Some of the actual events in his life were highly dramatised in the novel.

The description of Gan Ning's night raid on Cao Cao's camp at the Battle of Ruxu in the novel was more vivid as compared to that mentioned in his biography. Before the raid, Ling Tong had led 3,000 troops to engage the enemy and had duelled with Zhang Liao before he was ordered to retreat. When Gan Ning saw that, he told Sun Quan, "Tonight I'll bring only 100 men to raid Cao Cao's camp. If I lose a single soldier, this will not count as one of my contributions." That night, he led 100 horsemen to attack Cao Cao's camp and all of them returned alive after inflicting damage and casualties on the enemy.

Gan Ning killed Ling Tong's father Ling Cao at the Battle of Xiakou in 203. Following that, even after Gan Ning had come to serve Sun Quan, Ling Tong still bore a grudge against Gan for the death of his father. Their conflict was mentioned in chapters 67-68 of the novel, and was eventually resolved when Gan Ning saved Ling Tong's life.

Gan Ning's death was described in chapter 83 of the novel, in which he was killed at the Battle of Xiaoting by the tribal king Shamoke, who was an ally of Liu Bei.

Modern references
Gan Ning is featured as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi video game series.