Muhanna ibn Isa

Hussam al-Din Muhanna ibn 'Isa (also known as Muhanna II d. 1335), was the Emir of Palmyra as a vassal of the Mamluks and the leader of a prominent Bedouin tribe in the Syrian Desert in the late 13th and early 14th century. He was described by historian Amalia Levanoni as "the eldest and most senior amir" of the related Al Fadl and Al Muhanna Bedouin tribes during his era.

Origin
The Al Fadl tribe's ancestor Muhanna ibn Isa ibn Mati' ibn Haditha ibn Godayya ibn Fadl ibn Rabi'a al-Ta'i or "Muhanna I" was the head of the tribe, itself a branch of the larger Arab tribe of Tayy. Muhanna I was sometimes referred to as the "king of Arabs" by the Mamluk government; his son 'Isa became the first Emir of Palmyra as a reward for supporting the Mamluk sultan Qalawun in the 1281 Battle of Homs. Two of 'Isa's sons, Muhanna II and Fadl, each established a branch of the greater Al Fadl tribe, known as the Al Muhanna and Al Fadl branches, respectively.

Reign
Muhanna succeeded his father 'Isa as lord of Palmyra in 1284, after receiving the appointment from sultan Qalawun. In 1293, sultan Al-Ashraf Khalil had Muhanna arrested and sent to Egypt, but he was restored two years later by sultan Al-Adil Kitbugha. In 1312, Muhanna sent his son Musa to Öljaitü of the Mongol Ilkhanate and defected to the latter. This prompted sultan al-Nasir Muhammad to dismiss Muhanna from his principality; Muhanna's brother Fadl was appointed as lord of Palmyra.

Muhanna arrived at the Ilkhan's court in 1316, but then decided to go back to Palmyra where he was contacted by the sultan who summoned him to Cairo, the seat of the Mamluks. Muhanna avoided meeting the sultan, and sent his brothers and sons instead. He was able to gain the forgiveness of the sultan who subsequently restored him to his position in 1317.

Al-Nasir sought to keep the Al Fadl tribe loyal to his authority and prevent their defection to the Ilkhanate, as well as to ensure that they did not disrupt peaceful travel on the roads. To accomplish this, al-Nasir adopted a policy without precedent among Mamluk sultans and opted to distribute fiefs (iqta'at) and grants to the Bedouin, namely the Al Fadl tribe. Al-Nasir went so far as to accede to requests from members of the tribe to be transferred the fiefs of other Mamluk emirs of Aleppo, Hama or Damascus (the Mamluk emirs were typically compensated with other fiefs). Muhanna criticized al-Nasir for the extravagant distribution of fiefs to members of his tribe because he believed such excesses would ruin the character of the Bedouin tribes and ultimately weaken the Muslim armies. He also asserted to al-Nasir that "even if he [sic] wished to change this situation ... you will no longer be able to so" since the tribesmen would not easily forfeit their new properties.

Muhanna later reestablished contact with the Ilkhanate, causing the sultan to banish him with his whole tribe from Palmyra in 1320. The clan was exiled to the Syrian Desert and after ten years, Muhanna contacted the Ayyubid prince Al-Afdal Muhammad of Hama, requesting that he intercede with the sultan on Muhanna's behalf; al-Nasir ultimately forgave Muhanna and reinstated him in 1330 and the Al Fadl prince remained loyal to sultanate until his death near al-Salamiyah in 1335, aged around 80.

Legacy
By 1352, the sons of Muhanna ibn Isa and their offspring amounted to 110 men, each starting their own clan, using the title of "Emir" (Prince) and possessing fiefs. According to Levanoni, Muhanna's warning to al-Nasir about the effects of distributing and subsequently seizing fiefs "came true only a short time" after Muhanna's death, when Musa ibn Muhanna threatened a Bedouin revolt and defection to the Ilkhanate if al-Nasir did not return to the tribe fiefs that he seized from the tribesmen.