Ma Chao

Ma Chao (176–222), style name Mengqi, was a military general and warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han Dynasty and early Three Kingdoms period. He also appears as a prominent character in Luo Guanzhong's historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, as one of the Five Tiger Generals under Liu Bei.

Family background
Ma Chao was a native of Maoling (茂陵), Youfufeng (右扶風), which is located northeast of present-day Xingping, Shaanxi. He was the eldest son of Ma Teng and a descendant of Ma Yuan. Ma Teng, along with Han Sui and others, were warlords who held considerable influence in Liang Province in the Guanzhong region (in northwestern China), and they were reluctant to submit to the Han Dynasty's rule. In 192, Ma Teng accepted the title of "General Who Attacks the West" (征西將軍) from the Han court and garrisoned his army at Mei (郿). However, he rebelled later and attacked the city of Chang'an but failed to conquer it so he retreated back to Liang Province.

Early career
In 197, the warlord Cao Cao (who had become the de facto head of government in the Han imperial court) placed Zhong Yao, the Director of Retainers (司隷校尉), in charge of guarding the Guanzhong region. Zhong Yao wrote to Ma Teng and Han Sui, explaining to them the benefits of submitting to the Han court and the negative consequences of not doing so. When Cao Cao later became the Chancellor (丞相), he wanted to recruit Ma Chao to serve in the Han government, but Ma refused.

In 202, when Cao Cao was on a series of campaigns to unify northern China after his victory over Yuan Shao at the Battle of Guandu two years ago, he ordered Zhong Yao to attack Yuan's allies Gao Gan and Guo Yuan in Pingyang (平陽). Ma Teng sent Ma Chao to assist Zhong Yao, and Ma Chao became an "Assistant Officer Who Supervises the Army" (督軍從事) under Zhong. During the battle, Ma Chao was hit by a stray arrow in the foot, but he wrapped his foot in a pouch and continued fighting. His subordinate Pang De slew Guo Yuan and they defeated the enemy.

Later, Ma Teng had disagreements with Han Sui, so he requested to leave Liang Province and work in the capital. He was granted permission and was appointed "Minister of the Guards" (衞尉) by the Han court. Ma Chao was appointed as a Lieutenant-General (偏將軍), granted the title of "Marquis of a Chief Village" (都亭侯), and placed in charge of his father's troops in Liang Province. Ma Chao's younger brothers Ma Xiu and Ma Tie were appointed as "Commandant of Equipage" (奉車都尉) and "Commandant of Iron Cavalry" (鐵騎都尉) respectively, and were ordered to bring all their family members with them to Ye (鄴). Only Ma Chao remained behind in Liang Province.

Battle of Tong Pass
In 211, Cao Cao sent Zhong Yao and Xiahou Yuan to lead an army to attack Zhang Lu in Hanzhong. They were due to pass through the Guanzhong region along the way, and Ma Chao suspected that Cao Cao was planning to attack him, so he contacted Han Sui to form an alliance. He said to Han Sui, "Previously, Zhong Yao ordered me to harm you. Now, I know that the people from Guandong (east of Tong Pass) cannot be trusted. Now, I abandon my father, and I'm willing to acknowledge you as my father. You should also abandon your son, and treat me like your son." Han Sui's subordinate Yan Xing urged his superior not to cooperate with Ma Chao but Han still agreed to the alliance. Ma Chao also contacted Yang Qiu, Li Kan, Cheng Yi, Hou Xuan, Cheng Yin, Zhang Heng, Liang Xing, Ma Wan (馬玩) and others, and they formed a 100,000 strong coalition army to attack Tong Pass (present-day Tongguan County, Shaanxi). Liu Zhang, the governor of Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing), wanted to marry his daughter to Ma Chao to build ties with Ma, but Wang Shang (王商), the Administrator of Shu commandery (蜀郡) under Liu Zhang, opposed the idea, saying that Ma Chao was courageous but inhumane and untrustworthy.

Cao Cao led an army to Tong Pass to attack Ma Chao and the coalition, culminating in the Battle of Tong Pass. After both sides clashed in a few engagements, Cao Cao had talks with Ma Chao and Han Sui. Ma Chao thought highly of himself and secretly harboured the intention of dashing forth and capturing Cao Cao when they met. However, he did not dare to make his move when Cao Cao's bodyguard, Xu Chu, glared at him. Cao Cao later followed Jia Xu's strategy to sow discord between Ma Chao and Han Sui, making them become suspicious of each other. Taking advantage of the hostility between Ma Chao and Han Sui, Cao Cao launched an attack on the northwestern warlords and defeated them.

Earlier on, when Cao Cao's forces were at Puban (蒲阪) and were planning to cross the Wei River and head west, Ma Chao told Han Sui, "We should resist them at the north of the Wei River. Within 20 days, their supply stores on the east of the river will be depleted, after which they will definitely retreat." However, Han Sui rejected his idea and said, "We should send our forces to engage the enemy on the river. Isn't this more direct?" When Cao Cao heard of Ma Chao's plan, he remarked, "If the young horse doesn't die, I cannot have a proper burial place."

Battles in Guanzhong
Ma Chao retreated further west after his defeat at Tong Pass. Cao Cao pursued him to Anding (安定) but gave up on the pursuit and headed east after receiving news about unrest in northern China. Yang Fu warned Cao Cao, "Ma Chao has the courage of Han Xin and Ying Bu, and he has the support of the Qiang and Rong peoples. If we retreat now and don't station defences here, we'll forfeit all the territories in this area." After Cao Cao left, as Yang Fu predicted, Ma Chao led the various tribes in the region to attack the commanderies and counties in Guanzhong, while the people responded to his call and joined him in the revolt. Ma Chao killed Wei Kang (韋康), the Inspector (刺史) of Liang Province, and seized control of Jicheng (兾城) and forced Wei Kang's subordinates to submit to him. He then declared himself "General Who Attacks the West" (征西將軍) and Governor (牧) of Bing Province, and took charge of military affairs in Liang Province.

Wei Kang's former subordinates — Yang Fu, Jiang Xu (姜叙), Liang Kuan (梁寬), Zhao Qu (趙衢) and others — were unhappy with Ma Chao so they plotted to get rid of him. Yang Fu and Jiang Xu rebelled against Ma Chao in Lucheng (鹵城), while the others in Jicheng pretended to urge Ma to suppress the revolt. Ma Chao followed their advice and led an army to attack Lucheng but could not conquer the city. When he returned to Jicheng, he saw that Liang Kuan and Zhao Qu had closed the city gates and barred him from entering. Zhao Qu and the others also killed Ma Chao's family in Jicheng.

About a year after Ma Chao rebelled against the Han imperial court, Emperor Xian issued a decree ordering the execution of Ma Chao's family members in Ye (鄴).

Ma Chao fled to Hanzhong, where he borrowed troops from the warlord Zhang Lu, and returned to attack those who drove him out of Guanzhong. He besieged Jiang Xu, Zhao Ang (趙昂) and their allies at Mount Qi (祁山) for about 30 days until reinforcements led by Cao Cao's generals Xiahou Yuan and Zhang He showed up and lifted the siege.

Service under Zhang Lu
Ma Chao returned to Hanzhong after his defeat at Mount Qi and sought shelter under Zhang Lu. Zhang Lu planned to marry his daughter to Ma Chao, but one of Zhang's aides advised him against it, saying, "If a person cannot even love his family and relatives, can he still love others?" Zhang Lu then aborted his plan.

On one New Year's Day, a relative of Ma Chao (who had also escaped to Hanzhong) came to visit him. Ma Chao beat his chest, coughed blood, and said to his relative, "A big family with over a hundred members all sharing the same fate in one day. Now, are there only the two of us to give greetings to each other?"

Ma Chao constantly asked Zhang Lu to give him some troops to attack Liang Province. Zhang Lu agreed, but Ma Chao failed to make any gains from the campaign. Yang Bai (楊白), an officer under Zhang Lu, was jealous of Ma Chao's ability and wanted to harm the latter. When Ma Chao heard that, he escaped from Wudu (武都) and went to live with the Di people around the area.

Service under Liu Bei
Around 214, the warlord Liu Bei was fighting for control over Yi Province with the provincial governor Liu Zhang. Ma Chao felt that Zhang Lu was not capable of making great achievements and was also distrustful of him, so he planned to defect to Liu Bei. When he heard that Liu Bei was besieging Liu Zhang in Chengdu (the capital of Yi Province), he wrote a secret letter to Liu Bei, expressing his desire to serve the latter. Liu Bei was pleased to receive Ma Chao's letter and he exclaimed, "Yi Province is mine." He then sent Li Hui to meet Ma Chao and provide supplies and additional troops to Ma, after which Ma led his forces to the north of Chengdu and joined in the siege. Within ten days of Ma Chao's arrival, Liu Zhang gave up resistance and surrendered to Liu Bei.

After occupying Yi Province, Liu Bei appointed Ma Chao as "General Who Pacifies the West" (平西將軍) and put him in charge of Linju (臨沮), which was in accordance with Ma's title of "Marquis of a Chief Village". Liu Bei defeated Cao Cao in the Hanzhong Campaign in 219 and declared himself "King of Hanzhong" (漢中王), after which he appointed Ma Chao as "General of the Left" (左將軍).

In 221, Liu Bei declared himself "Emperor of Shu Han" and appointed Ma Chao as "General of Agile Cavalry" (驃騎將軍) and Governor (牧) of Liang Province. Ma Chao also received the title of "Marquis of Tai District" (斄鄉侯). Liu Bei's edict read: "I am unworthy, but I have ascended the throne to preserve the Han Dynasty. Cao Cao and Cao Pi will be remembered for their sins. I am disconsolate by their wrongdoings. The people loathe them and hope that the Han Dynasty will be restored, such that the Di, Qiang, Xunyu and other ethnic minorities will be willing to join us. The northerners look up to you and your valour is well known among them. I have an important task for you: I hope you will use your influence to govern the northern border well and bring prosperity to the people there. You must show the benefits of the our government and be impartial in rewarding the good and punishing the evil. You have the blessings of the Han emperors and you must not let the people down."

Peng Yang's case
When Peng Yang (彭羕) was appointed as the Administrator (太守) of Jiangyang (江陽) and was about to leave Chengdu to assume office, he visited Ma Chao and said, "You're in charge of external affairs while I'm in charge of internal affairs. We can pacify the Empire." Ma Chao had recently joined Liu Bei's forces and he was often fearful that he would get into trouble. When he heard Peng Yang's speech, he was shocked and did not reply. After Peng Yang left, Ma Chao reported Peng's speech, which resulted in Peng's arrest and imprisonment. Peng Yang was later executed.

Conflict with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei
The Shanyang Gong Zaiji (山陽公載記; Records of the Duke of Shanyang), by Yue Zi (樂資), recorded an incident as follows:

"Ma Chao saw that Liu Bei treated him very generously after his defection to the latter's side, so he often addressed Liu by his style name ('Xuande') when he spoke to the latter. Guan Yu was furious when he heard about it (because he felt that Ma Chao was being disrespectful to Liu Bei) and he asked Liu Bei to execute Ma Chao. However, Liu Bei said, 'He was in dire straits when he came to join me. Why are you so angry about this? How can I ever explain myself if I executed someone just because he called me by my style name?' Zhang Fei said, 'Yes, you should show civility towards him.' The following day, Liu Bei invited Ma Chao to attend a banquet, during which Guan Yu and Zhang Fei stood nearby and carried swords. After Ma Chao took his seat, he was shocked to see that Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were still standing. After that, he never called Liu Bei by his style name again. The following day, he sighed, 'Now I know why he (Liu Bei) suffered defeats. I was almost killed by Guan Yu and Zhang Fei just because I addressed my lord by his style name.' From then on, he behaved more humbly in front of Liu Bei."

Pei Songzhi, who annotated Ma Chao's biography in the Sanguozhi, disputed the Shanyang Gong Zaiji account as untruthful and unreliable. He commented as follows:

"I feel that Ma Chao would not have behaved so arrogantly in front of Liu Bei as to call the latter by his style name. After all, he was on the run before Liu Bei accepted him and granted him official titles. Besides, when Liu Bei entered Yi Province, he left Guan Yu behind to defend Jing Province, so Guan had never stepped into Yi Province before. When Guan Yu heard that Ma Chao had joined Liu Bei's forces, he wrote to Zhuge Liang and asked, 'Who can compete with Ma Chao?' This was a different account. How was it possible that Guan Yu and Zhang Fei actually stood side by side (in Yi Province)? When a normal person does something, he will do it if he knows he can. If he knows he cannot, he will not do it. If Ma Chao really did address Liu Bei by his style name, he would know the circumstances under which he could do so. When Guan Yu asked Liu Bei to execute Ma Chao, Ma should not even know about it. How was it possible that Ma Chao managed to deduce that Guan Yu and Zhang Fei wanted to kill him for calling their lord by his style name just by seeing them standing nearby and carrying swords? This is totally absurd and illogical. The records by Yuan Wei (袁暐) and Yue Zi are disorganised, unreliable and nonsensical. Their works should not even be mentioned."

Death
Ma Chao died in 222 at the age of 47 (by East Asian age reckoning). His cause of death was not specified. Before his death, he wrote to Liu Bei: "Over 200 members of my family were killed by Cao Cao. I only have my cousin Ma Dai left with me. He will be the one to continue my family line. I entrust him to Your Majesty's care. That is all I have to say." In 260, Liu Bei's son and successor Liu Shan granted Ma Chao the posthumous title of "Marquis Wei" (威侯).

Family and relatives
Ma Chao's title "Marquis of Tai District" (斄鄉侯) was inherited by his son, Ma Cheng (馬承). Ma Chao's daughter married Liu Bei's son Liu Li (劉理), the Prince of Anping (安平王).

Ma Chao had at least two spouses. The first was Lady Yang (楊氏), who was with him when he seized control of Liang Province after the Battle of Tong Pass. She probably bore Ma Chao at least one child, because the Records of the Three Kingdoms mentioned that Zhao Qu (趙衢), Yin Feng (尹奉) and others killed Ma's family (wife and child(ren)) when they rebelled against him and drove him out of Liang Province. Ma Chao had a concubine, Lady Dong (董氏), who bore him a son named "Ma Qiu" (馬秋). When Ma Chao escaped from Zhang Lu and defected to Liu Bei, he left them behind in Hanzhong. Zhang Lu was later defeated by Cao Cao and he surrendered to the latter. Cao Cao presented Lady Dong to Yan Pu, a former advisor to Zhang Lu, and gave Ma Qiu to Zhang Lu. Zhang Lu personally killed Ma Qiu. It is not known who the mother(s) of Ma Chao's two other children (Ma Cheng and the daughter) were, but she (or they) was probably neither Lady Yang nor Lady Dong.

Ma Chao's younger cousin, Ma Dai, served as a general in Shu Han. His highest appointment was "General Who Pacifies the North" (平北將軍) and he also received the title of "Marquis of Chencang" (陳倉侯).

Appraisal
Chen Shou, who wrote Ma Chao's biography in the Sanguozhi, commented on the latter as such: "Ma Chao's arrogance and overestimation of his ability caused the extermination of his entire clan. What a great pity! If he had been content with what he possessed, would he not have saved himself from disaster?"

Guan Yu once wrote to Zhuge Liang to ask who could compete with Ma Chao when he heard that Ma had recently joined Liu Bei's forces. Zhuge Liang replied: "Mengqi is proficient in both civil and military affairs. He is fierce and mighty, and a hero of his time. He is comparable to Qing Bu and Peng Yue. He can compete with Yide, but is not as good as the peerless beard."

Yang Fu, one of the officials who opposed Ma Chao in Liang Province, once visited his colleague and cousin Jiang Xu (姜叙) and the latter's mother. He lamented about Ma Chao's murdering of Wei Kang and forceful occupation of Liang Province: "[...] Ma Chao betrayed his father, rebelled against the Emperor, and massacred the officers in our province. [...] Ma Chao is strong but iniquitous. He is morally weak and susceptible to temptation and trickery." Yang Fu, Jiang Xu and several others later plotted against Ma Chao and drove him out of Liang Province. Ma Chao fought his way into Licheng (歷城) and captured Jiang Xu's mother. She scolded him, "You're an unfilial son who betrays his own father and a treacherous villain who murders his superior. Heaven and Earth will not forgive you. You should die immediately. How dare you look at me straight in the eye!" Ma Chao was furious and he killed her.

Yang Xi (楊戲), a writer in Shu Han, wrote an appraisal on Ma Chao as follows: "Ma Chao rose up, formed alliances, started an uprising in the Three Qins, and conquered the river and Tong Pass. He rebelled against the imperial court, regardless of whether his followers agreed or disagreed with him. In doing so, he provided an opportunity for the enemy to sow discord between him and his men, resulting in the destruction of his family and forces. He defied morals and ethics, and ended up having to rely on dragons and phoenixes."

In fiction
Ma Chao is featured as a prominent character in some chapters in the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong. However, in the novel, the descriptions of his character and personality, as well as the order of some events involving him, had been modified to very large extents for dramatic effect. In the novel, he was nicknamed "Ma Chao the Splendid" for his elaborate armour and grand skill as a warrior, and was one of the Five Tiger Generals under Liu Bei.

See the following for some fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms involving Ma Chao:
 * Battle of Tong Pass (211)
 * Battle of Jiameng Pass

Modern references
Ma Chao appears as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi video game series.

Ma Chao is featured in the Taiwanese television drama K.O.3an Guo, a parody of Romance of the Three Kingdoms in a present day school setting.

In the collectible card game Magic: The Gathering, there is a card named "Ma Chao, Western Warrior" in the Portal Three Kingdoms set.