Herzegovina Uprising (1875–78)

The Herzegovina Uprising of 1875–1878 (Hercegovački ustanak, Херцеговачки устанак) was an uprising led by Serbs against the Ottoman Empire, firstly in Herzegovina (hence its name) and then in Bosnia. It is the most significant of the rebellions against Ottoman rule in Herzegovina. The uprising was precipitated by the harsh treatment under the beys and aghas of the Ottoman province of Bosnia.

The reforms announced by the Turkish Sultan Abdülmecid I, involving new rights for Christian subjects, a new basis for army conscription, and an end to the much-hated system of tax-farming, were either resisted or ignored by the powerful Bosnian landowners. They frequently resorted to more repressive measures against their Christian subjects. The tax burden on Christian peasants constantly increased. Over 200,000 Christian fugitives was a result of Turkish and Bosnian Muslim atrocities in 1877.

The rebels were aided with weapons and volunteers of Montenegro and Serbia which led to the Serb-Turkish War and Great Eastern Crisis. A result of the uprisings and wars was the Berlin Congress in 1878, which gave Montenegro and Serbia independence and territorial expansion, while Austro-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina for 30 years, while being de jure Ottoman territory.

Herzegovina rebellions 1852–1862
Ottoman general Omar Pasha decided in March 1852 to disarm the Herzegovinians of their weapons, this sparked an outrage in the region in which local clan chief Luka Vukalović was holding. The refusal of giving up arms resulted in minor fights between Herzegovinians and Turks, which in turn resulted in an uprising, which Vukalović would lead.

The uprising began in winter 1852/53, when Grahovo, Banjani and Drobnjaci refused to pay the Turks a debt. As the actions against Montenegro by the Ottomans began, the East Herzegovinian clans fought alongside Montenegrins. Although there weren't major actions in the period of 1853–57, there wasn’t peace. Austria evidently interfered in the actions of Vukalović, as it would help Montenegro, and the French consulates followed the uprising. The uprising was boosted in December 1857, after Knez Danilo started backing the rebels, bitter at the Porte because of its statements in the Paris Congress in 1856.

After the Battle of Grahovac on May 1, 1858, when Montenegrin and Herzegovinian rebels defeated the Turks, Knez Danilo titled Vukalović the voivode of Zubac, Kruševica, Dračevica and Sutorina, giving him some autonomy.

The Porte agreed on appeasement, it carried out a border with Montenegro, thus recognizing the independence of Montenegro. As the great part of East Herzegovina, except Grahovo, part of Banjani, Drobnjaci, Župa and Nikšič Rudina was left under Ottoman rule, Vukalović continued the uprising. This strongly echoed in Bosnia, in particular the revolts in Bosanska Krajina and Posavina in 1858. Afraid that the uprising would spill over in its territory, Austria increased its tackling of Vukalović, helping in different ways even the Turks.

Vukalović in his requests didn't only deal with economical problems of Herzegovina, but marking the fight for national liberaiton, seeking for Herzegovina to join Montenegro. This character of uprising sparked the interest of the great powers of Europe, whom consulate representatives worked on giving Vukalović to the Ottoman government. Vukalović continued fighting against the Turks, and after the violent death of Knez Danilo in 1860, inspired by the unification of Italy which was led by Garibaldi.

Since 1861, Omer-paša tried in many ways to end the uprising, unsuccessfully. But when Montenegro, after a defeat to the Turk in August 1862, promised that it wouldn't help the rebel movement in Herzegovina, Vukalović understood this as the people had been strained and then wrote to Omer-paša, who promised amnesty for all rebels. Omer-paša promised Vukalović that he would continue his office as voivode of Zubac, Kruševica, Dračevica and Sutorina, but this was not held, he instead appointed him bimbaša of 500 pandurs who would secure peace along the borders. When he saw that the Ottomans didn't give their promises of relief on feudal duties and tax cuts, he tried in 1865 to once again start an uprising, but without any help, was unsuccessful. Vukalović left his birthplace and migrated to Russia, where he died in 1873.

In Herzegovina
The leaders of the people of Herzegovina: Jovan Gutić, Simun Zečević, Ilija Stevanović, Trivko Grubačić, Prodan Rupar and Petar Radović, at the end of August and beginning of September 1874, met and decided to start preparing a rebellion. They conclude with preparing weapons and ammunition, safe-places for people, assistance of Montenegro in the uprising, concluding that the uprising is to break out in Spring 1875. The group entered in talks with Nikola I Petrović, but he was not willing to break and risk the unreadiness of Russia in its war with the Ottomans. The preparations continued, and in Bileća and Trebinje region, serdar Todor Mujičić, Gligor Milićević, Vasilj Svorcan and Sava Jakšić lead the revolt in these regions.

The Ottomans hear of the talks between Nikola I and tries to capture the ringleaders, they however flee into Montenegro in the winter of 1874. In 1875, Austria is drawn in, and with its interests in Bosnia and Herzegovina, they seek from the Ottomans to give the ringleaders amnesty. The pressured Ottomans join in discussion with Austria.

In Bosnia
The preparations start somewhat later than the Herzegovinian and did not manage to coordinate actions of the two regions. In the preparations are Vaso Vidović, Simo and Jovo Bilbija, Spasoje Babić and Vasa Pelagić. The plans began with firstly liberating the villages of Kozara; Prosara and Motajica, then attack communications and block the cities of the Sava river, later to take over Banja Luka. The start of the uprising was envisaged on August 18, 1875. The Ottomans imprisoned priests in Prijedor, which put further pressure on the people, therefore villagers from Dvorište, Čitluka, Petrinje, Bačvani, Pobrđani and Tavija attack the Turks in Dvorište on August 15. The uprising sparks wide, and the leader of the uprising is chosen to be Ostoja Kormanoš.

Nevesinje


The leaders return in 1875 and continue their plans on revolt, the plan seeks liberation of Nevesinje region, then expansion on the rest of Herzegovina. In the meantime, Turks seek hajduk Pera Tunguz, who on July 5, had attacked a caravan on the Bišini mountain. On July 9, the Turks start a conflict with the armed villagers of Jovan Gutić on the Gradac hill north of Krekova. This conflict would be known as Nevesinjska puška (Nevesinje gun) and marked the beginning of the uprising in all of Herzegovina. Firstly Nevesinje, Bileća and Stolac are involved, then in August, Gacko and the frontier towards Montenegro. Četa of 50–300 people and bands of 500–2000 people gather and attack Ottoman border posts and Bey towers. The Ottomans had 4 battalions of regular army (nizami) with a total of 1800 soldiers, situated in Mostar, Trebinje, Nikšić, Foča and the border posts, also a larger number of başıbozuk are present all over the province. The Ottoman troops are commanded by Selim-paša who in turn is under Derviš-paša, the commander of Bosnia Eyalet. After the outbreak of the uprising, the Turks try to gain time by starting negotiations while reinforcements arrive. The rebels wanted lower taxes, which the Turks refused, and the fighting continues. In August, 4000 nizami arrive from Bosnia, and later 4 more battalions by sea through Klek in Trebinje. The rebels had by July and August destroyed the majority of border posts and besieged Trebinje in August 5. The Turks regained Trebinje by August 30. In the end of August, fights break out in Bosnia, and Serbia and Montenegro promise aid, sparking an intensification of the uprising.



Knez Nikola sends Petar Vukotić, while a large number of Montenegrin volunteers arrive at the command of Peko Pavlović. The Serbian government dare not to publicly assist because of international pressure, but secretly sends Mićo Ljubibratić (who took part in the 1852–1862 uprising) among others. There is a conflict between the rebels because of disagreement between the representatives of the Montenegrin and Serbian governments, causing failures in the ongoing uprising.

August 1876
According to Herr Fric, the Serbian rebels were "extremely numerous, and in some cases well armed" and were divided among following troops and bands:
 * Risovac and Grmeč, in West Bosnia.
 * The troops were under the leadership of well known Golub Babić, Marinković, Simo Davidović, Pope Karan, and Trifko Amelić. The Serb colonel Despotović held supreme leadership and had formed 8 battalions out of the scattered bands.


 * Vučjak, in East Bosnia.
 * Pastirevo and Kozara, in North Bosnia.
 * The bands were led by Marko Djenadija, Ostoja, Spasojević, Marko Bajalica, Igumen Hadzić, and Pope Stevo. The new camp of Brezovac, not far from Novi, was held by Ostoja Vojnović. The former camp of Karađorđevići in Ćorkovac was held by Ilija Sević.

The aim of the bands was to prevent any greater concentration of Turkish troops on the Drina, on the western frontier of Serbia. As a systemically organized insurrection in Bosnia is of no possibility, the rebels pursue and drive back the Muslim population into their towns. The bands protect and help the exiles hiding in the woods; unarmed men, women, and children, to reach the frontier of Austria or Serbia through safe conduct.

The state of the common Christian people was serious, the number of fugitives exceeded 200,000 by January 1877.

1877
The rebels in South Bosnia had cleared the region of Turks, presently under the command of Despotović, between the Austrian frontier and the Turkish fortresses of Kulin Vakup, Ključ, and Glamoč.

In August 1877, all Bosnian Muslims men from 15 to 70 were ordered to fight, although there was already 54 battalions, each with 400–700 men.

Aftermath
The unrest rapidly spread among the Christian populations of the other Ottoman provinces in the Balkans (notably the April Uprising in Bulgaria) setting off what would becomne known as the Great Eastern Crisis. The atrocities of the Ottoman Empire in suppressing unrest in the Balkan provinces eventually led to the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78, which ended in Turkish defeat, and the signing of the Treaty of San Stefano in March 1878, followed in July of the same year by the Treaty of Berlin, severely reducing Ottoman territories and power in Europe. The Congress of Berlin decided that Bosnia and Herzegovina, while remaining nominally under Turkish sovereignty, would be governed by Austria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary was also given the right to occupy those provinces, but did not do so until 1908. That occupation enraged Serbian nationalists and was a catalyst for the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria by the Bosnian Serb nationalist Gavrilo Princip.