Francisco Menéndez (creole)

Francisco Menéndez was a free black military leader serving the Spanish Crown in 18th-century St. Augustine, Florida. He had been a slave in South Carolina and escaped to Florida, where he served in the Spanish militia, leading the garrison established in 1738 at Fort Mosé. This site has been designated as a National Historic Landmark, as it was the first legal free black community in what is now the United States.

Early life
Menéndez was born in the Gambia region along the Gambia River in Africa; he was of Mandinga descent. He was captured and sold by slave traders, and probably was shipped to Carolina sometime between 1709 and 1711, during a period of significantly increased importation of African slaves. Like many other black slaves, Menéndez escaped his bondage, along with nine other slaves, and sought refuge in Spanish Florida. He was the epitome of what historian Ira Berlin called the Atlantic creoles, peoples shipped from the slave ports in Africa who acquired "linguistic dexterity, cultural plasticity, and social agility". Since 1693, the official Spanish policy was that any and all slaves that touched Spanish soil and asked for refuge would be made free. They were expected to learn the Catholic faith and accept baptism. They were required as well to be ready to protect the territory as part of the militia for four years.

In Florida he aided in the defense of St. Augustine in 1727, earning his freedom and establishing his reputation for leadership. He was recognized as a subject of the King of Spain and baptized in the Catholic Church as Francisco Menéndez. Despite his conversion and military service, Menéndez and many of his fellow militia were still slaves. When Manuel de Montiano became governor in 1737, Menéndez petitioned for his freedom. On March 15, 1738, he was granted unconditional freedom. Years later, he was appointed head of the black militia based at Fort Mose, built in 1738, and the overall leader of its resident community. From this base, Menéndez led several raids against the colony of South Carolina, and inspired further rebellion among slaves there.

In 1740, the British army marched into Florida and overran Fort Mosé during the War of Jenkins' Ear. Days later Spanish and Fort Mose militia members defeated the British and prevented further invasion. Fort Mosé was destroyed during this bloody battle.

Menéndez took to the seas on a Spanish ship to raid English vessels. During this time he was captured by the English and sold back into slavery. He was ransomed by the Spanish and returned to Florida. After his return to Florida, he was asked to rebuild Fort Mosé in 1752, and free blacks returned to the community.

Evacuation to Cuba
They continued at Fort Mosé until the British took control of East Florida in 1763, following their defeat of France in the Seven Years' War. In that settlement, the British traded territory with Spain, taking over East Florida.

Together with most of the Spanish colonists from St. Augustine, Menéndez evacuated with the Fort Mosé community to Cuba. There he established a similar community called St. Augustine of the New Florida.

Legacy and honors
The site of Fort Mosé, where Menéndez led the militia, is now designated by the United States as a National Historic Landmark. The original site was rediscovered in an archeological dig in the 1990s, and has been protected as a park. The Fort Mose Historic State Park is owned by the Florida Park Service. It is widely known as the first legally sanctioned free community of freedmen and a destination for African-American refugees from slavery. It served as a precursor to the Underground Railroad that developed during the antebellum years.

Children's book
The story of Fort Mosé and Francisco Menéndez is told in a juvenile book published in 2010.