British Army during the American War of Independence

The British Army during the American War of Independence served for eight years in campaigns fought across the globe. Defeat at the Siege of Yorktown to a combined Franco-American force ultimately led to the loss of the Thirteen Colonies in North America, and the concluding Treaty of Paris deprived Britain of many of the gains achieved in the Seven Years' War. However several victories elsewhere meant that much of the British Empire remained intact.

In 1775 the British army was a volunteer force that numbered just over 45,000 men thinly spread out in various locations globally. The army had suffered from lack of peacetime spending and ineffective recruitment in the decade since the Seven Years War, circumstances which had left it in a dilapidated state at the outbreak of war in North America. To offset this the British government quickly hired contingents of German mercenaries to serve as auxiliaries alongside the regular army units in campaigns from 1776. Limited army impressment was also introduced in England and Scotland to bolster recruitment in 1778, however the practice proved too unpopular and was proscribed again in 1780.

The attrition of constant fighting, the inability of the Royal Navy to decisively defeat the French Navy, and the withdrawal of the majority of British forces from North America in 1778 ultimately led to the British army's defeat. The loss of Cornwallis's army at Yorktown allowed the Whig opposition to gain a majority in parliament, and British operations were brought to an end.

Structure and recruitment
Britain had incurred a large national debt fighting the Seven Years' War, during which the armies' establishment strength had been increased to an unprecedented size. With the ascension of peace in 1763 the army was dramatically reduced to a peacetime home establishment of just over 11,000 men, with a further 10,000 for the Irish establishment and 10,000 for the colonies. This meant 20 regiments of infantry totaling just over 11,000 men were stationed in England, 21 regiments were stationed in Ireland, 18 regiments were stationed in the Americas, and 7 regiments stationed in Gibraltar. Alongside this the army could call on 16 regiments of the cavalry, a total of 6,869 men and 2,712 men in the artillery. This gave a theoretical strength of just over 45,000 men exclusive of the artillery. The British government deemed this troop strength to be inadequate to persecute an insurrection in the Americas, as well as deal with defence of the rest of its territories, so treaties with German states (mainly Hesse-Kassel and Brunswick) were negotiated for a further 18,000 men (half of which were stationed in garrisons to release regular British units from other theaters). This measure brought the Army’s total establishment strength to around 55,000 men.

After the losses at the Battles of Saratoga and the outbreak of hostilities with France and Spain, the existing voluntary enlistment measures were judged to be insufficient. Between 1775 and 1781, the regular army increased from 48,000 to 121,000. In 1778 the army adopted some non traditional recruiting measures to further augment its strength, a system of private subscription was established, whereby some 12 new regiments totaling 15,000 men were raised by individual towns and nobles. In the same year the government passed the first of two recruiting acts which allowed a limited form of impressment in parts of England and Scotland under strict conditions, however the measure proved unpopular and both acts were repealed in May 1780, permanently discontinuing impressment in the army. The recruiting acts of 1778 and 1779 also provided greater incentives for voluntarily joining the regular army, including a bounty of £3 and the entitlement to discharge after three years unless the nation remained at war. Thousands of volunteer militia battalions were raised for home defense in Ireland and England, and some of the most competent of these were embodied to the regular army. The British Government took a further step by releasing criminals and debtors from prison on the condition they joined the army. Three entire regiments were raised from this early release program.



In Nov 1778 the establishment was set at 121,000 men, of whom 24,000 were foreigners, along with 40,000 embodied militia. This was raised the next year to 104,000 men on the British establishment, 23,000 on the Irish establishment, 25,000 foreigners (the “Hessians”), and 42,000 embodied militia, for a total force of about 194,000 men.

Although a large portion of the rank and file were lower class and the officers upper class, the army recruited from a variety of social backgrounds, both among the regular and officer ranks. According to Reid, the Georgian army through necessity drew its officers from a far wider base than its later Victorian counterpart and was much more open to promotion from the ranks. Officers were required to be literate, but there was no formal requirement on the level of education or their social standing, and most regimental officers did not come from the landed gentry, but from middle class private individuals in search of a career. Although the system of sale of commissions officially governed the selection and promotion of officers, in practice the system was considerably relaxed during wartime, with far more stringent requirements placed on promotion.

Leadership
The Commander-in-Chief, India formally held command over crown forces in the East Indies, and the Commander-in-Chief, North America commanded crown forces in the Americas, nevertheless there was no real overall command structure over the British army in 1775, which meant that British Generals often worked on their own initiative at various points during the war. The position of Commander-in-Chief of the Forces remained vacant until 1778 when it was given to Jeffery Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst who held it until the end of the war. However his role in advising the government on strategy was limited and Amherst found himself primarily occupied with the organisation of home forces to oppose the threatened invasion in 1779, and oppose the outbreak of severe anti-Catholic rioting in 1780. The direction of the British war effort ultimately fell to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, George Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville. Despite not holding a formal position in the army, he promoted or relieved Generals, took care of provisions and supplies, and directed much of the strategic planning. While some historians argue Sackville carried out his role effectively, even brilliantly, others have argued he made several miscalculations and struggled to hold genuine authority over his subordinates in the army.

Infantry


Infantry formed the backbone of crown forces till the end of the war. Two of the most engaged infantry regiments, the 23rd and the 33rd, earned enduring reputations for their competence and professionalism in the field. The elite of the infantry were formed in the Foot Guard and the Highland regiments, who were usually the tallest and fittest men. On taking command in America General William Howe gave orders that every regiment form a company of light infantry who were then placed in composite light infantry battalions. These men were again hand picked from the tallest and fittest of the rank and file.

Tactics
During the French and Indian War the British army had adopted new infantry tactics to better suit campaigning in North America. In battle the redcoats usually formed in two lines rather three to increase mobility and firepower. The British army further adapted this formation during the American Revolution by forming and fighting in looser ranks, a tactic that was known as "loose files and American scramble". Soldiers stood at a greater distance apart and three 'orders' were used to specify the distance to be expanded or contracted as necessary; "order" (two intervals), "open order" (four intervals), and "extended order" (ten intervals). British infantry advanced at the 'trott' and fought fluid battles primarily utilising the bayonet. Although this new formation increased the British army's mobility and tactical flexibility, the abandonment of linear formation was later blamed by some British officers for defeats in the later stages of the war like the Battle of Cowpens, in which British troops engaged denser bodies of men deployed in successive lines.

The most common order of battle positioned the light infantry and Grenadiers on the flanks of the main line of infantry, while Highlanders or Guards were usually held back as a reserve. The most proficient line regiments were deployed on the right, while inexperienced regiments or militias were placed on the left of the battle line. The German mercenary regiments that joined Howe's army in 1776 likewise adopted the two rank formation used by the British army, however unlike the British they retained the traditional close order system of fighting throughout the war.

Riflemen and light infantry
The British army had no dedicated corps of light infantry, instead in times of war it employed companies of light foot seconded from line troops. In 1758 General Thomas Gage formed an experimental light infantry regiment known as 80th Regiment of Light-Armed Foot, this is considered to be the first regular light infantry regiment to serve in the British army. On becoming commander-in-chief in North America in 1758, General Jeffery Amherst ordered every regiment to form light infantry companies from their ranks, a system which continued until the early 19th century. Soldiers of the new light infantry not only adopted new tactics, but adapted their uniforms. Coats were cut short, so that they rested at the men's waists, all lace was removed and the cumbersome tricorn hats were cut down to brims to resemble derby hats, while some were issued with short leather caps. The lighter armament consisted consisted of a shorter musket, while the heavy and cumbersome cartridge-box was replaced by a small one, instead worn across the stomach, containing nine cartridges lined up in a row for easy access. Light companies were also issued with powder horns and naval boarding axes (which became known as Tomahawks in North America).

In 1771-72 the British army began implementing a new training scheme for light infantry companies, and in 1774 William Howe formed a new experimental Light Infantry battalion which became the pattern for all regular light infantry serving in North America.

Although some light foot companies were issued with rifles, the British army did not have a dedicated corps of rifleman and usually relied on Jagers. Major Patrick Ferguson formed a small company of rifleman using regular British troops which fought in campaigns from 1777-78. This company was armed with the experimental Ferguson rifle.

Loyalists


Large numbers of scouts and skirmishers were also formed from loyalists and native Americans. The renowned Robert Rogers formed the Queen's Rangers, while his brother James Rogers led the King's Rangers. Loyalist pioneer John Butler raised the provincial regiment known as Butler's Rangers, who were heavily engaged in the Northern colonies during which they were accused of participating in massacres at Wyoming and Cherry Valley. The majority of Native Americans favoured the British cause and Mohawk leader Joseph Brant commanded Iroquois and Loyalists in campaigns on the New York Frontier. Colonel Thomas Brown led another group of King's Rangers in the Southern colonies, defending East Florida from invasion, raiding the southern frontier and participating in the conquest of the southern colonies. Colonial Governor John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore raised a regiment composed entirely of freed slaves known as the Ethiopian Regiment, which served through the early skirmishes of the war.

The loyalist units were vital to the British primarily for their knowledge of local terrain. One of the most successful of these units was formed by an escaped slave, and veteran of the Ethiopean Regument known as Colonel Tye, who led the so-called Black Brigade in numerous raids in New York and New Jersey, interrupting supply lines, capturing rebel officers, and killing suspected leaders. He died of from wounds in 1780.

Uniform and equipment
The standard uniform of the British army consisted of the traditional red coat along with tricorne hats (leather/fur caps for light infantry and Grenadiers), white breeches and black gaiters with leather knee caps. Hair was usually cut short or fixed in plaits at the top of the head. As the war progressed many line regiments replaced their tricornes with slouch hats. The full 'marching order' a line infantryman was expected to carry on campaign was extensive, and British soldiers often dropped much of their equipment before battle. Light foot were issued with short coats, with their ammunition box worn across the front of their stomach rather than at the side as by line infantry. Grenadiers usually carried cavalry sabers as a side arm, while light infantry carried small axes. Soldiers were also issued with greatcoats to be worn in adverse conditions, and were often used as tents or blankets. Drummers usually wore colours in reverse of their regimental colour, they carried the coat of arms of their colonel and wore mitre caps. Most German regiments wore dark blue coats, while cavalry and loyalists often wore green.

The most common infantry weapon was the Brown Bess used alongside a bayonet, however some of the light companies were issued with the short barrel muskets or the Pattern 1776 Rifle. The British army also conducted limited experimental use of the breech-loading Ferguson Rifle, which proved too difficult to mass-produce to be used more extensively.

Colours
British infantry regiments possessed two flags; the King's Colour (the Union flag) and their regimental colour, which displayed colour of the regiment's facings. In 18th and 19th century warfare 'the colours' often became a rallying point in the most bitter actions. Both regimental standards were highly regarded and a source of pride each regiment. However because of the tactical constraints in conducting the war and the adapted mode of fighting, it is likely that British regiments only used their colours for ceremonial purposes in America, particularly the armies commanded by Howe and Cornwallis. However in the early years of the war the Hessians continued to carry their colours on campaign, Major-General Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Lossberg wrote; "They [the British] have their colours with them only when quartered, while we carry them with us wherever the regiments go... the country is bad for fighting. Nothing worries me more than the colours, for the regiments cannot stay together in an attack because of the many walls, swamps, and stone cliffs. The English cannot lose their colours, for they do not carry them with them." During the Saratoga campaign Baroness Riedesel, the wife of a German officer, saved the colours of the Brunswick regiments by burning the staffs and hiding the flags in her mattress.

Daily life
The harsh conditions of life in the army meant that discipline was severe. Crimes such as theft or desertion could result in hanging and punishments such as lashings were administered publicly. Soldiers spent a great deal of time cleaning and preparing their clothing and equipment. Families were permitted to join soldiers in the field. Wives often washed, cooked, mended uniforms and served as nurses in the time of battle or sickness. The army often suffered from poor discipline away from the battlefield, gambling and heavy drinking were common among all ranks. The distance between the colonies and the British Isles meant logistics were stretched to breaking point, with the army often running out of food and supplies in the field, and forced to live off the land.

Training
Training was rigorous; firing, bayonet drills, movements, physical exercise, marching and forming were all part of the daily regimen to prepare for campaigns.



During the course of the war the British army conducted large scale mock battles at Warley and Coxheath camps in southern England. The primary motivation behind this was in preparation for the threatened invasion. By all accounts the camps were massive in scale involving upwards of 18,000 men. One militia officer wrote to his friend in August 1778: "We are frequently marched out in considerable bodies to the heaths or commons adjacent, escorted by the artillery, where we go through various movements, manoeuvres and firings of a field of battle. In these expeditions, let me assure you, there is much fatigue, and no little danger...the most grand and beautiful imitations of action are daily presented to us; and believe me, the army in general are becoming greatly enamoured by war." The maneuvers carried out at Warley camp were subject of a painting by Philip James de Loutherbourg known as Warley Camp: The Mock Attack, 1779. He also drew detailed illustrations of the uniforms of the light infantry and grenadiers present at the camp which are considered some of the most accurate surviving illustrations of 18th century British soldiers.

Cavalry
Cavalry played a smaller role in British armies than other European armies of the same era. Britain possessed no armoured Cuirassiers or Heavy cavalry. British doctrine tended to favour the use of medium cavalry, and light dragoons. The cavalry establishment consisted of three regiments of Household Cavalry, seven regiments of Dragoon Guards and six regiments of light Dragoons.

Because of the logistical limitations of campaigning in North America, cavalry played a limited role in the war. The transport of horses by ship was extremely difficult. Most of the horses died during the long journey and the ones that survived usually required several weeks to recuperate on landing. The British army primarily adopted small numbers of light dragoons who worked as scouts and were used extensively in irregular operations. One of the most successful of these units, the British Legion combined, light cavalry and light infantry and conducted raiding operations into enemy held territory. The lack of cavalry had great tactical implications on how the war was fought, it meant that British forces could not fully exploit their victories when out maneuvering Continental armies at battles like Long Island and Brandywine. Without a large cavalry force to follow up the infantry, retreating American forces could often escape destruction.

Foreign units in British service


Manpower problems at the outbreak of war led to the British government employing large numbers of German mercenaries, primarily recruited from Hesse-Kassel. Units were sent by Count William of Hesse-Hanau; Duke Charles I of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel; Prince Frederick of Waldeck; Margrave Karl Alexander of Ansbach-Bayreuth; and Prince Frederick Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst.

Approximately 9,000 Hessians arrived with Howe's army in 1776 and served with British forces through the campaigns in New York and New Jersey. In all 25,000 hired auxiliaries served with Britain in the various campaigns during the war.

The German mercenaries were found to be different in tactics and approach to the regular British troops. Many British officers regarded the German regiments as slow in mobility, therefore British generals utilised them as heavy infantry. This is primarily because of the German officers' reluctance to adopt loose formations. British Lieutenant William Hale commented on the tactical limitations of mercenary troops: "I believe them steady, but their slowness is of the greatest disadvantage in a country almost covered with woods, and against an enemy whose chief qualification is agility in running from fence to fence keeping up an irregular, but galling fire on troops who advance with the same pace as at their exercise... At Brandywine, when the first line formed, the Hessian Grenadiers were close to our rear, and began beating their march at the same time as us. From that minute we saw them no more until the action was over, and only one man of them was wounded, by a random shot which came over us."

The Hessians served in some capacity in most of the major battles of the war. Duke Karl I provided Great Britain with almost 4,000 foot soldiers and 350 dragoons under General Friedrich Adolf Riedesel. These soldiers were the majority of the German regulars under General John Burgoyne in the Saratoga campaign of 1777, and were generally referred to as "Brunswickers." The combined forces from Braunschwieg and Hesse-Hanau accounted for nearly half of Burgoyne's army.

The Jagers were greatly prized by British commanders, their skill in skirmishing and scouting meant they continued to serve in the Southern campaigns under Cornwallis until the end of the war.

Soldiers from Hanover also formed part of the garrisons at Gibraltar and Minorca, and two regiments participated in the Siege of Cuddalore.

Other than mercenary troops, the Company army serving in India consisted of regular British troops alongside native Indian Sepoys. Foreigners were also present among the regular British officer corps. The Swiss-born Major-General Augustine Prévost commanded the successful defense of Savannah in 1779. The former Jacobite officer Allan Maclean of Torloisk, who had previously held commission in the Dutch service, was second in command during the successful defense of Quebec in 1775. Another Swiss-born officer Frederick Haldimand served as Governor of Quebec in the later stages of the war. Huguenots, and exiled Corsicans also served amongst the regular and officers ranks.

Boston 1774-75


British troops had been stationed in Boston since 1769 amid rising tensions between colonial subjects and the parliament in Great Britain. Fearing the impending insurrection General Thomas Gage dispatched an expedition to remove gunpowder from the powder magazine in Massachusetts on 1 September 1774. The next year on the night of April 18, 1775, General Gage sent a further 700 men to seize munitions stored by the colonial militia at Concord. The Battles of Lexington and Concord were fought. The British troops stationed in Boston were inexperienced, and by the time the redcoats began the return march to Boston, several thousand militiamen had gathered along the road. A running battle ensued, and the British detachment suffered heavily before reaching Charlestown. The British army in Boston found itself under siege by thousands of colonial militia. On June 17, British forces now under the command of General William Howe attacked and seized the Charlestown peninsula in the Battle of Bunker Hill. Although successful in his objective, the British forces suffered heavy casualties in taking the position. Both sides remained at stalemate until guns were placed on the Dorchester Heights, at which point Howe's position became untenable and the British abandoned Boston entirely.

Canada 1775-76


After captuing Fort Ticonderoga, American forces under the command of General Richard Montgomery launched an invasion of British controlled Canada. They besieged and captured Fort Saint-Jean, while another army moved on Montreal. However they were defeated at the Battle of Quebec and British forces under the command of General Guy Carleton launched a counter invasion which drove the colonial forces from the province entirely and reached all the way to Lake Chaplain, however came short of recapturing Fort Ticonderoga.

New York and New Jersey 1776
After withdrawing from Boston, Howe immediately began preparations to seize New York which was considered the 'hinge' of the colonies. In late August, 22,000 men (including 9,000 Hessians ) were rapidly landed on Long Island using flat bottomed boats, this would be the largest amphibious operation undertaken by the British army until the Normandy landings almost 200 years later. In the ensuing Battle of Long Island on August 27, 1776, the British outflanked the American positions, driving the Americans back to the Brooklyn Heights fortifications. General Howe not wishing to waste the lives of his men in a bloody frontal assault then began to lay siege works. The navy had failed to properly blockade the East river which left an escape route open for Washington's army, which he fully exploited, managing a nighttime retreat through his unguarded rear to Manhattan Island. British forces then fought a series of actions to consolidate control of Manhattan Island, culminating in the Battle of Fort Washington which resulted in the capture of close to 3,000 Continental troops. British forces under the command of General Charles Cornwallis then drove Washington's army entirely from New Jersey and across the Delaware River, however on the night of December 25, Washington recrossed back into New Jersey and captured a garrison of Hessians at Trenton. Washington then outmaneuvered Cornwallis at Assunpink Creek and overwhelmed a British outpost at Princeton. Cornwallis rallied and again drove Washington away, however the defeats showed the British army had become too overstretched and Howe abandoned most of his outposts in New Jersey.

Saratoga 1777


Following the failure of the New York and New Jersey campaign to bring about a fully decisive victory over the Americans, the British army adopted a radically new strategy. Two armies would invade from the north to capture Albany, one of 8,000 men (British and Germans ) under the command of General John Burgoyne, and a another of 1,000 men (British, German, Indian, Loyalist, Candians) under Brigadier General Barry St. Leger, while a third army under the command of General Howe would advance from New York in support. Through poor co-ordination and unclear orders the plan failed. Howe believing he could not support a Northern army until the threat of Washington's army had been dealt with, moved on Philadelphia instead, and Burgoyne was eventually surrounded and forced to surrender his entire army at Bemis Heights. Burgoyne's tactics were greatly criticised, the composition of his force was disjointed, and his decision to over laden his army with artillery (expecting a long siege) meant his army could not advance rapidly enough through the difficult terrain, allowing the Americans too much time to gather an overwhelming force to oppose him. The defeat had far reaching consequences, the French (who had already been secretly supporting the colonists) decided to openly support the rebellion and eventually declared war on Britain in 1778.

Philadelphia 1777-78
While Burgoyne invaded from the North, Howe led an army of 15,000 men (including 3,500 Hessians) to invade Philadelphia. Howe rapidly outflanked Washington at Brandywine, however most of Washington's army managed to escape destruction. After inconclusive skirmishing with Washington's army at the the Clouds, a battalion of British light infantry were accused of committing a massacre in a surprise assault on a rebel camp at Paoli, nevertheless the action wiped out all remaining resistance and the rest of Howe's army marched on the rebel capital unopposed. The capture of Philadelphia did not turn the war in Britain's favour, and Burgoyne's army was left isolated with only a small amount of support coming from Clinton (who had the responsibility of defending New York). Howe remained garrisoned in the city with 9,000 troops, coming under heavy attack from Washington at the Battle of Germantown, which was successfully driven off. After an unsuccessful attempt to capture Fort Mifflin, Howe eventually took the forts of Mifflin and Mercer. After probing Washington's fortifications at White Marsh, he returned his army to winter quarters. Howe resigned shortly afterwards complaining he had been inadequately supported. Command was given to Henry Clinton, who after the French declaration of war carried out orders to evacuate the British army from Philadelphia to New York. He did this with an overland march, and fought a large action at Monmouth, following which Clinton continued his withdrawal.

Raiding Operations 1778-79
In August 1778 a combined Franco-American attempt to drive British forces from Rhode Island failed. One year later an American expedition to drive British forces from Penobscot Bay also failed. In the same year Americans launched a successful expedition to drive Native Americans from the frontier of New York, and captured a British outpost in a nighttime raid. During this period the British army carried out a series of successful raiding operations, taking supplies, destroying military defenses, outposts, stores, munitions, barracks, shops and houses.

Southern Colonies 1780–81


The first major British operation in the Southern colonies occurred in 1776, when a force under General Henry Clinton unsuccessfully besieged the fort at Sullivan's Island. In 1778 a British army of 3,000 men under Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell successfully captured Savannah which began a campaign to bring the colony of Georgia under British control. A Franco-American attempt to retake Savannah in 1779 ended in failure. In 1780 the main British strategic focus turned to the south. British planners mistakenly believed a large base of loyalism existed in the southern colonies, and based plans on the flawed assumption a large loyalist army could be raised to occupy the territories that had been pacified by regular British troops. In May 1780 an army of 11,000 men under the command of Henry Clinton and Charles Corwnallis captured Charleston along with 5,000 of the Continental army. Shortly afterwards Clinton departed back to New York leaving Cornwallis with a force of less than 4,000 men and instructions to secure control of the southern colonies. At first Cornwallis was successful, winning a lopsided victory at the Battle of Camden and sweeping most resistance aside. However failing supplies and increasing partisan activity gradually wore down his occupying troops, and the destruction of a loyalist force under Major Ferguson at King's Mountain, all but ended any hopes of large scale loyalist support. In January 1781 Tarleton's cavalry force was destroyed at the Battle of Cowpens. Cornwallis then determined to destroy the Continental army under Nathaniel Greene. Cornwallis invaded North Carolina and engaged in a pursuit over hundreds of miles that became known as the "Race to the Dan". Cornwallis's ravaged army met Greene's army at Battle of Guilford Court House, and although Cornwallis was victorious he suffered heavy casualties. With little hope of reinforcements coming from Clinton, Cornwallis then decided to move out of North Carolina and invade Virginia. Meanwhile Greene moved back into South Carolina and began attacking the British outposts there.

Yorktown 1781


In early 1781 the British army began conducting raids into Virginia. The former Continental army officer, Benedict Arnold, now a Brigadier of the British army, led a force with William Phillips raiding and destroying rebel supply bases. He later occupied Petersburg and fought a small action at Blandford.

On hearing the news British forces were in Virginia and believing that North Carolina could not be subdued unless its supply lines from Virginia were cut, Cornwallis decided to join forces with Phillips and Arnold. Cornwallis's army fought a series of skirmishes with the rebel forces commanded by Lafayette before fortifying himself with his back to the sea (believing the Royal Navy could maintain supremacy over the Chesapeake Bay). He then sent requests to Clinton to be either resupplied or evacuated. The reinforcements took too long to arrive and in September the French fleet successfully blocked Cornwallis in Chesapeake Bay, with Royal Navy Admiral Graves believing the threat posed to New York more critical, he withdrew. Cornwallis then became surrounded by armies commanded by Washington and the French General Rochambeau. Outnumbered and with no avenue of relief or escape, Cornwallis was compelled to surrender his army.

West Indies 1778-83
In 1776 an American force captured the British island of Nassau. After the French entry into the war, numerous poorly defended British islands fell quickly. In December 1778 a force of veteran British troops under the command of General James Grant were landed in St. Lucia and successfully captured the high grounds of the islands. Three days later 9,000 French reinforcements were landed and attempted to assault the British position, however they were repulsed with heavy casualties. Despite this victory, numerous other British islands fell during the war. On 1 April 1779, Lord Germain instructed Grant to establish small garrisons throughout the West Indies, Grant believed this would be unwise and instead concentrated defences to cover the major naval bases. He posted the 15th, 28th, and 55th Foot and 1,500 gunners at Saint Kitts. The 27th, 35th, and 49th Foot and 1,600 gunners defended Saint Lucia. Meanwhile, the royal dockyard at Antigua was held by an 800-man garrison of the 40th and 60th Foot. Grant also reinforced the fleet with 925 soldiers. Although Britain lost other islands, his dispositions provided the basis for the British successes in the Caribbean during the final years of the war.

East Indies 1778-83
In 1778 British forces began attacking French enclaves in India, first capturing the French port of Pondicherry, and seizing the port of Mahé. The Mysorean ruler Hyder Ali, an important ally of France, declared war on Britain in 1780. Ali invaded Carnatic with 80,000 men, laying siege to British forts in Arcot. A British attempt to relieve the siege ended in disaster at Pollilur. Ali continued his sieges taking fortresses, before another British force under General Eyre Coote defeated the Mysoreans at Porto Novo. Fighting continued until 1783 when the British captured Mangalore, and the Treaty of Mangalore was signed which restored both sides lands to Status quo ante bellum.

Gulf Coast 1779-81
From 1779 the Governor of Spanish Louisiana Bernardo de Gálvez led a successful offensive to conquer British West Florida, culminating in the Siege of Pensacola in 1781.

Europe 1779-83


Europe was the setting of three of the largest engagements of the entire war. The unsuccessful Franco-Spanish attempt to invade England, unsuccessful attempt to capture Gibraltar and the successful Franco-Spanish campaign to capture Minorca, had by 1783 involved over 100,000 men, and hundreds of guns and ships. In September 1782 the "Grand Assault" on the besieged Gibraltar garrison took place, which was the largest single battle of the war, involving over 60,000 soldiers, sailors and marines. France also twice unsuccessfully attempted to capture the British channel island of Jersey, first in 1779 and again in 1781.

Later History
Following the Treaty of Paris, the British army began withdrawing from its remaining posts in the Thirteen Colonies. In mid-August 1783, General Guy Carleton began the evacuation of New York, informing the President of the Continental Congress that he was proceeding with the withdrawal of refugees, freed slaves and military personnel. More than 29,000 Loyalist refugees were evacuated from the city.

The British army was dramatically reduced again in peacetime. Morale and discipline became extremely poor, and troops levels fell. When the wars with France commenced again in 1793 its total strength stood at 40,000 men.

In 1788 the British army went under reforms by General David Dundas who wrote many training manuals adopted by the army. The first of which being the Principles of Military Movements. Dundas chose to ignore the light infantry and flank battalions the British army had come to rely on in North America, and instead after witnessing Prussian army maneuvers in Silesia in 1784, pushed for drilled battalions of heavy infantry.