Battle of Xiaoting

The Battle of Xiaoting, also known as the Battle of Yiling and the Battle of Yiling and Xiaoting, was fought between the kingdom of Wu and the state of Shu Han in 222 CE during the early Three Kingdoms period. The battle was most significant for the decisive Wu victory, which halted the Shu invasion and preceded the death of Shu's emperor Liu Bei in Baidicheng.

Guan Yu's death and the fall of Jing Province
In 219, Sun Quan's general Lü Meng invaded and annexed Liu Bei's territory in Jing Province. Guan Yu, the general appointed by Liu Bei to defend Jing Province, was captured after his defeat and executed. Liu Bei was enraged by the sudden attack because Sun Quan was formerly his ally, and also due to his close relationship with Guan Yu.

In 220, Cao Pi forced Emperor Xian to abdicate in his favour, effectively ending the Han Dynasty and establishing the state of Cao Wei. A year later, Liu Bei declared himself "Emperor of Shu Han" in Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing). Sun Quan had not declared himself emperor yet then, but his state (a kingdom), was known as Wu. In 221, Liu Bei planned to attack Wu to retake Jing Province and avenge Guan Yu. However, many of his subjects, including Zhao Yun, opposed his decision, but Liu Bei ignored them.

Zhang Fei's death
As Liu Bei mobilised his troops in preparation for the attack on Wu, another of his generals, Zhang Fei, was assassinated by his subordinates Fan Qiang and Zhang Da. Zhang Fei was growing impatient with the preparations for war, so he imposed strict deadlines on Fan Qiang and Zhang Da, but his subordinates failed to meet the time limit. Zhang Fei disparaged them before warning them that they would be executed under military law if they foundered again. Out of fear, Fan Qiang and Zhang Da killed Zhang Fei while he was asleep, cut off his head, and defected to Wu.

Liu Bei was overwhelmed with grief over the loss of two of his generals who had accompanied since the beginning of his military exploits. Zhang Fei's death hardened his decision to attack Wu for revenge. Again, many of Liu Bei's subjects, including Zhao Yun and Qin Mi, attempted to dissuade their lord from attacking Wu but Liu dismissed their advice. Eventually, Liu Bei departed from his capital Chengdu with a large army and advanced towards Jing Province on both land and water (along the Yangtze River). He left his chancellor Zhuge Liang and crown prince Liu Shan to defend Chengdu.

Wu defeats
Initially, Wu forces underestimated the enemy's tenacity due to their superiority in numbers. As the advancing Shu army captured regions including Zigui, Wu County, Mount Ba and Mount Xing, Wu forces that set out from their fortifications to engage the enemy were nearly all annihilated. The initial defeat made Sun Quan decide to adopt Lu Xun's strategy and appoint the latter as Grand Viceroy (the de facto commander-in-chief of Sun Quan's forces).

Wu forces realised that the Shu troops were better versed in warfare in mountainous terrain as they were mostly ground troops. Thus, they decided to abandon their defences at certain territories and retreat to vital positions and defend them instead. After that, they would hold on to those positions and wait for an opportunity to launch a counterattack.

Retreat and stalemates
In January, Shu naval forces led by Wu Ban and Chen Shi captured Yiling. Liu Bei built his headquarters in Zigui but did not stay there for long as his forces continued to make progress and push further into the heartland of Wu. In February, the Shu vanguard broke through enemy lines at Yidao and defeated the Wu defenders in engagement outside the city. The Wu general Sun Huan, who was guarding Yidao, retreated with his remaining troops into the city and held on to their positions until a stalemate was reached.

Meanwhile, the main Shu force led by Liu Bei reached Xiaoting and was unable to push any further as Wu forces led by Lu Xun held on firmly to their positions. With no further retreat by Wu forces, both sides reached at stalemate at Xiaoting.

Falling morale of the Shu army
As Shu troops ventured further into Wu territory, their supply lines from Chengdu lengthened and supplies took longer to arrive. They also became gradually weary and tired from battle. The terrain became flatter and the Shu infantry lost its advantage in mountainous terrain. Liu Bei deployed his troops in over 50 camps along the 350 km line from Wuxia to Yiling on the southern bank of the Yangtze River. His vanguard army was isolated 150 km away at Yidao. Wu forces thought that it was the best time to launch their counterattack but Lu Xun ordered them to hold on.

By March, most of the Wu forces have evacuated from mountainous terrain and held up in their fortifications on flat terrain. Summer soon arrived and the sweltering heat killed several plants and shrubs. Liu Bei's forces camped at Yiling were directly next to a forest so the heat became even more unbearable. Some Shu soldiers were affected by heatstroke. By then, the Shu army's morale had fallen significantly as compared to at the start of the campaign, as the troops were now weary and suffering from the intense heat.

Liu Bei planned an ambush which turned out to be a failure. He deployed 8,000 elite troops to lie in ambush in nearby valleys and sent Wu Ban to lead a weaker force to challenge and lure Wu forces out of their fortifications into the ambush. However, Lu Xun saw through Liu Bei's ruse and ordered his troops to ignore taunts from the enemy. It was said that he even ordered his troops to put wax into their ears. The failure of the ambush caused the Shu army's morale to plummet even lower.

Burning of the camps
Shu troops were suffering from the summer heat as the stalemate, which began in March, continued to progress. Liu Bei decided to shift his camp into the nearby forest for shade and shelter from the heat even though his adviser Ma Liang opposed his decision.

In July, Lu Xun knew that the time was ripe for the counterattack. He ordered saboteurs to encircle Liu Bei's camp by travelling on water with the navy. Once they were behind Liu Bei's camp at Yiling, the saboteurs set the camp on fire. The woods gradually became a fiery inferno within hours as wildfires fuelled by dead plants and dry air erupted everywhere. As Shu soldiers rushed towards the Yangtze River for water to put out the fires, Wu archers lying in ambush shot them down. Shu forces attempted a counterattack, but Wu forces led by Pan Zhang broke through the lines they reformed and made retaliation impossible.

Shu retreat
The Shu navy fared slightly better by barely managing an orderly retreat. Cheng Ji, a Shu official, personally led a group of men to cover the navy as it withdrew. Wu marine forces caught up with the rear guard of the Shu navy and engaged in battle. Cheng Ji and his men were surrounded by the Wu vanguard force but they managed to hold on by sinking the smaller enemy boats. However, they were eventually outnumbered when the bulk of the Wu navy arrived and were all killed.

Shu forces lost over 40 of their original 50 camps on the 350 km line to a rockslide at the Ma'an Hills. Liu Bei attempted to reform and regroup his remaining forces at the hills to make a last stand. However, his troops were split up before they could regroup as one. The Wu general Zhu Ran led an army of 5,000 to disrupt the lines and prevent Liu Bei from reforming. Lu Xun personally led an attack on Shu forces together with Xu Sheng and Han Dang, and succeeded in preventing Liu Bei from making his last stand. The entire Shu army was nearly wiped out at the Ma'an Hills.

Liu Bei's escape and death
The remaining camps of the Shu army were set ablaze by retreating Shu soldiers to hinder Wu forces' pursuit. Meanwhile, the isolated Shu vanguard force at Yidao was also completely destroyed by Wu forces. Huang Quan managed to escape together with his deputy Pang Lin and 318 horsemen to the northern bank of the Yangtze River, where they were cut off from the rest of the Shu army, and eventually they decided to surrender to Wei.

Liu Bei fled to Zigui with Wu forces hot on his heels and the demoralised Shu troops were unable to hold their ground and kept retreating. During the withdrawal, Wang Fu, the Shu official in charge of Jing Province, was killed in the ensuing battle, but his death bought time for Liu Bei to continue retreating. Xiang Chong, who was stationed at Jing Province, managed to regroup the surviving Shu troops and lead them on an orderly retreat without them suffering any further great losses.

Xiang Chong also led Liu Bei safely to Yufu (present-day Fengjie County, Chongqing) and managed to repel any further attacks by pursuing enemy forces. Liu Bei was impressed with Xiang Chong and promoted him to the rank of Viceroy. Eventually, reinforcements from Jiangzhou led by Zhao Yun arrived and a stalemate was reached before Wu forces retreated on their own accord, thus ending their counterattack. Of all the Shu commanders who participated in the battle, most of them were killed and only the naval commanders Wu Ban and Chen Shi managed to return safely.

Liu Bei died a year later in the spring of 223 at Baidicheng from dysentery. He was succeeded by his crown prince Liu Shan, with the chancellor Zhuge Liang and the general Li Yan serving as regents.

Aftermath
The Battle of Xiaoting sealed the fate of Shu as a large portion of its armed forces were destroyed in the battle. Ever since then, Shu's military was not as powerful as it once was. After Liu Bei's death, Shu was ruled by the chancellor-regent Zhuge Liang on behalf of the new emperor Liu Shan. Zhuge Liang sought to make peace with Wu and restore their alliance. This was achieved in 223.

On the other hand, the Battle of Xiaoting allowed Wu to establish its control over Jing Province after the victory. Lu Xun rose to fame for his role in the battle, and his victory marked the beginning of an illustrious career that led to his appointment as chancellor of Wu more than 20 years after the battle.

Shu forces

 * Liu Bei, Emperor of Shu.
 * Wu Ban defeated Li Yi and Liu E in Wu (巫) when the two Wu generals directly faced the Shu army at Nanshan (南山). He garrisoned a naval force at Yiling (彝陵) on the western bank of the Yangtze River to secure the retreat route.
 * Feng Xi defeated Li Yi and Liu E in Wu together with Wu Ban. He served as commissioner (or overall commander) of the land forces.
 * Zhang Nan (張南) served as commander of the vanguard and commissioned the front divisions.
 * Chen Shi garrisoned a naval force at Yidao (彝道) on the western bank of the Yangtze River and guarded the supply route.
 * Palace Attendant (侍中) Ma Liang served as the ambassador for Liu Bei to contact the Wuling tribes.
 * General of the Standard (牙門將) Xiang Chong (向寵) was responsible for the defence of Liu Bei's camp. He was defeated at Zigui (秭歸).
 * Administrator of Yidu (宜都太守) Liao Hua served as a detachment commander (別督).
 * Wang Fu was killed in action at Zigui (秭歸).
 * Li Chao (李朝)
 * Fu Rong was killed in action while covering the Shu army's retreat.
 * Cheng Ji (程畿) was killed in action during the Shu army's retreat.
 * Fu Kuang (輔匡) served as a detachment commander (別督).
 * Zhao Rong (趙融) served as a detachment commander (別督).
 * Du Lu (杜路) surrendered to Wu.
 * Liu Ning (劉寧) surrendered to Wu.


 * General Who Guards the North (鎮北將軍) Huang Quan oversaw all the forces stationed north of the Yangtze River. He defected to Wei after the battle.
 * Assistant Officer in Jing Province's Headquarters Office (荊州治中從事) Pang Lin (龐林), Pang Tong's younger brother. He surrendered to Wei together with Huang Quan.


 * Zhao Yun defended Jiangzhou (江州) and moved to Yong'an as reinforcement.


 * Zhang Fei was supposed to lead a force from Langzhong (閬中) to rendezvous with Liu Bei in Jiangzhou (江州), but was assassinated by his subordinates during mobilisation.
 * Zhang Da assassinated Zhang Fei after being abused by the latter. He surrendered to Wu.
 * Fan Qiang assassinated Zhang Fei together with Zhang Da and they defected to Wu.

Wuling tribe
Shamoke, a tribal king allied with Shu.

Wu forces

 * Right Protector of the Army / General Who Guards the West (右護軍 / 鎮西將軍) Lu Xun. He was later appointed Grand Viceroy (大都督).
 * General of Martial Brightness (昭武將軍) Zhu Ran defended Yidu. He later blocked Shu's return route.
 * General Who Inspires Might (振威將軍) Pan Zhang, defended Yiling with Lu Xun. He killed Feng Xi later.
 * Lieutenant General / Administrator of Yongchang (偏將軍 / 永昌太守) Han Dang, under Lu Xun's instruction, defeated the Shu army at Yidu.
 * Song Qian conquered five Shu garrisons during the counterattack.
 * General Who Builds Loyalty (建忠將軍) Luo Tong defeated the Shu army at Yidu.
 * Xu Sheng conquered some Shu garrisons during the counterattack.
 * Jiang Yi (蔣壹), Jiang Qin's son.


 * General Who Pacifies the East (安東將軍) Sun Huan was besieged in Yidao in the early stages.
 * Xianyu Dan (鮮于丹)
 * Li Yi (李異) garrisoned at Wu (巫) and Zigui (秭歸).
 * Liu E (劉阿) defended Zigui along Li Yi.

Size of armies
Liu Bei personally led the bulk of Shu's army out for the campaign, with his force amounting to more than 100,000. He was supported by his allies, the tribes along the five creeks further south of Jing Province, amongst them, the strongest was the Wuling tribal king Shamoke, who commanded warriors numbering tens of thousands; while the forces of Wu was anticipating a probable invasion from the state of Wei, and had the army split: the Wu forces in Xiaoting amounted to about 50,000.

In fiction
The events before, during, and after the Battle of Xiaoting are mentioned in chapters 81-84 of the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi) by Luo Guanzhong, in which some fictitious stories were included, and actual events largely exaggerated, for dramatic effect.

The following are some notable events related to the battle, as described in the novel:

Opposition to Liu Bei's decision to go to war
Liu Bei planned to go to war with Sun Quan to avenge Guan Yu and retake Jing Province, but his decision was opposed by many of his subjects. The first person who attempted to dissuade Liu Bei was Zhao Yun, but Liu ignored Zhao and gave orders to prepare for war. Following that, several officials came to see the chancellor Zhuge Liang and urge him to stop Liu Bei, so Zhuge brought them along to meet Liu and advise him against his decision, but Liu Bei refused to accept their advice. Just as Liu Bei was preparing for war, Qin Mi opposed his decision to attack Sun Quan, and Liu Bei was so angry that he wanted to have Qin executed, but Zhuge Liang intervened and Qin was spared. Zhuge Liang then submitted a memorial to Liu Bei, explaining why they should not go to war with Sun Quan, but Liu Bei threw the memorial to the ground after reading and exclaimed, "My decision is final. There is no need to advise me against my decision anymore!"

Historicity
The historical text Sanguozhi did not mention anything about Zhuge Liang opposing Liu Bei's decision to go to war with Sun Quan. However, it did state that Zhao Yun and Qin Mi attempted to dissuade Liu Bei. The Yun Biezhuan mentioned that Zhao Yun advised Liu Bei against attacking Sun Quan, but Liu ignored him and proceeded with his campaign. Qin Mi's biography in the Sanguozhi stated that Liu Bei had Qin thrown into prison when the latter urged him not to attack Sun Quan on the grounds that the circumstances were unfavourable to them. Qin Mi was released from prison later.

Huang Zhong's death
The Shu general Huang Zhong participated in the campaign against Sun Quan even though he was already over 70 years old at that time, but he was still fit and strong nonetheless. He slew Pan Zhang's subordinate Shi Ji (史蹟) and defeated Pan in an engagement on the first day. On the second day, while pursuing the retreating Pan Zhang, he fell into an ambush and was surrounded by Sun Quan's generals Zhou Tai, Han Dang, Ling Tong and Pan. He was hit by an arrow fired by Ma Zhong. Guan Xing and Zhang Bao saved him, but he died from his wound that night in camp. Liu Bei mourned his death. Since the Battle of Xiaoting historically took place between 221-222, by the novel's account, Huang Zhong's year of death should be around that time.

Historicity
Huang Zhong's biography in the Sanguozhi stated that Huang Zhong died in 220, a year after the Hanzhong Campaign ended. His cause of death was not specified.

Guan Xing killing Pan Zhang
In one of the early engagements, Guan Xing encountered the Wu general Pan Zhang, who captured his father Guan Yu in an ambush during the Battle of Maicheng. In his eagerness to avenge his father, Guan Xing pursued Pan Zhang into a valley but lost his way inside. Night fell and Guan Xing wandered around for hours until he found a small house inhabited by an old man, and he requested for food and lodging for the night. Inside the house, Guan Xing saw his father's portrait on the wall. Later that night, Pan Zhang also found his way to the house and asked to stay there. Guan Xing saw Pan Zhang and shouted at him. Just as Pan Zhang was about to walk out of the door, he encountered Guan Yu's ghost and was petrified. Guan Xing caught up with Pan Zhang, killed him, dug out his heart and placed it on the altar as a sacrifice to his father's spirit.

Historicity
Pan Zhang's biography in the Sanguozhi stated that he died in 234 — more than 10 years after the Battle of Xiaoting. His cause of death was not specified though. Besides, Guan Yu's biography mentioned that Guan Xing served as a civil official in Shu after reaching adulthood (around the age of 19) and died a few years later while in office.

Gan Ning's death
The Wu general Gan Ning was down with dysentery around the time of the Battle of Xiaoting, but he still participated in the battle regardless of his illness. He was resting when he heard that enemy forces were approaching, so he quickly mounted his horse and prepared for battle. He encountered a group of barbarian warriors led by Liu Bei's ally, the tribal king Shamoke. He saw that the enemy force was too large and decided to withdraw without fighting. While retreating on horseback, Gan Ning was hit in the head by an arrow fired by Shamoke. He fled, with the arrow still embedded in his head, reached Fuchi (富池; in present-day Yangxin County, Hubei), sat down under a big tree and died. Dozens of crows on the tree flew around Gan Ning's body. When Sun Quan heard of Gan Ning's death, he was deeply saddened and ordered Gan Ning to be buried with full honours.

Historicity
No details were given on Gan Ning's cause and time of death in his biography in the Sanguozhi. Gan Ning's death was briefly stated as follows: When Gan Ning died, Sun Quan deeply lamented his death.

Zhao Yun killing Zhu Ran
Liu Bei retreated under the protection of Guan Xing and Zhang Bao after his camps were set on fire by the Wu forces, and he was pursued by the enemy while withdrawing. At a critical moment, Zhao Yun showed up and blocked the attacks from the Wu soldiers. Zhao Yun encountered the Wu general Zhu Ran during the battle and he killed Zhu and covered Liu Bei as the latter headed towards Baidicheng.

Historicity
The Yun Biezhuan stated that Zhao Yun did not participate in the Battle of Xiaoting. Zhao Yun previously urged Liu Bei not to go to war with Sun Quan (see the section above) but Liu ignored his advice and proceeded with the campaign. Liu Bei ordered Zhao Yun to remain behind and put him in charge of Jiangzhou (江州; within present-day Chongqing). When Zhao Yun learnt that Liu Bei had been defeated by Wu forces at Zigui (秭歸), he led a force to Yong'an (永安; within present-day Chongqing) to help Liu Bei, but the Wu forces had already retreated.

Zhu Ran's biography in the Sanguozhi stated that he died in 249 at the age of 68 (by East Asian age reckoning), about 27 years after the Battle of Xiaoting. Besides, Zhu Ran outlived Zhao Yun, who historically died in 229.

Lady Sun's death
News of Liu Bei's defeat in the battle reached his ex-wife Lady Sun, who had returned to Sun Quan's territory in Wu. After hearing rumours that Liu Bei had been killed in battle, Lady Sun ventured out to the bank of the Yangtze River, where she faced the west and cried before drowning herself in the river.

Historicity
Nothing was recorded in history about what happened to Lady Sun after she left Liu Bei and returned to Sun Quan's territory.

Modern references
The battle is featured as a playable stage in Koei's video game series Dynasty Warriors, in which it is known as the "Battle of Yi Ling".