High-altitude military parachuting



High-altitude military parachuting (or military free fall (MFF)) is a method of delivering personnel, equipment, and supplies from a transport aircraft at a high altitude via free-fall parachute insertion. Two techniques are used: HALO (high altitude - low opening) and HAHO (high altitude - high opening).

In the HALO technique, the parachutist opens his parachute at a low altitude after free-falling for a period of time, while in the HAHO technique, the parachutist opens his parachute at a high altitude just a few seconds after jumping from the aircraft. HALO techniques date back to 1960 when the U.S. Air Force was conducting experiments that followed earlier work by Colonel John Stapp in the late 1940s through early 1950s on survivability factors for high-flying pilots needing to eject at high altitudes. In recent years, the HALO technique has been practiced by civilians as a form of skydiving. HALO is used for delivering equipment, supplies, or personnel, while HAHO is generally used only for personnel.

In typical HALO/HAHO insertions, the troops are dispatched from altitudes between 15000 ft and 35000 ft.

HALO - High Altitude Low Opening
The origins of the HALO technique date back to 1960 when the U.S. Air Force was conducting experiments that followed earlier work by Colonel John Stapp in the late 1940s through early 1950s on survivability factors for high-flying pilots needing to eject at high altitudes. Stapp, a research biophysicist and medical doctor, used himself as a human guinea pig in rocket sled tests to study the effects of very high g-forces. Stapp also resolved many of the issues involved in high altitude flight in his earliest work for the Air Force, and subjected himself to exposure to altitudes of 45000 ft. Subsequently, he helped develop pressure suits and ejection seats, which have been used in jets ever since. As part of the experiments, on August 16, 1960, Colonel Joseph Kittinger performed the first high altitude jump at an altitude of 19.5 mi above the Earth's surface. The first time the technique was used for combat was during the Vietnam War in Laos by members of MACV-SOG. SEAL Team Six of the United States Navy expanded the HALO technique to include delivery of boats and other large items in conjunction with parachutists.

The technique is used to airdrop supplies, equipment, or personnel at high altitudes when aircraft can fly above surface-to-air missile (SAM) engagement levels through enemy skies without posing a threat to the transport or load. In the event that antiaircraft cannons are active near the drop zone, the HALO technique also minimizes the parachutist's exposure to flak.

For military cargo airdrops, the rigged load is cut free and rolls out of the plane as a result of aircraft deck angle (ADA). The load then proceeds to fall under canopy to a designated drop zone.

In a typical HALO exercise, the parachutist will jump from the aircraft, free-fall for a period of time at terminal velocity, and open his parachute at a low altitude. The combination of high downward speed, minimal metal and forward air-speed serves to defeat radar as well as simply reduce the amount of time a parachute might be visible to ground observers, enabling a stealthy insertion.

HAHO - High Altitude High Opening
The HAHO technique is used to airdrop personnel at high altitudes when aircraft are unable to fly above enemy skies without posing a threat to the jumpers. In addition, HAHO parachute jumps are employed in the covert insertion of military personnel (generally special operations forces) into enemy territory, in circumstances where the covert nature of an operation may be compromised by the loud noise of parachutes opening at low altitude.

HAHO jumps also allow a longer travel distance due to increased under canopy time, allowing travelling distances of more than 40 miles (64 km).

In a typical HAHO exercise, the jumper will jump from the aircraft and deploy the parachute at a high altitude, 10–15 seconds after the jump (typically at 27000 ft or so). The jumper will use a compass or GPS device for guidance while flying for 30 or more miles. The jumper must use way points and terrain features to navigate to his desired landing zone, and correct his course to account for changes in wind speed and direction. If deploying as a team, the team will form up in a stack while airborne with their parachutes. Usually, the jumper in the lowest position will set the travel course and act as a guide for the other team members.

Whilst in the British Special Forces (22 SAS), due to his extensive skydiving background, Charles "Nish" Bruce was pivotal in the original trials & development of the HAHO tactic now routinely used as a conflict insert for Special Forces.

Health risks
All types of parachuting technique are dangerous, but HALO/HAHO carry special risks. At high altitudes (greater than 22,000 feet [6,700 m]), the partial pressure of oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere is low. Oxygen is required for human respiration and lack of pressure can lead to hypoxia. Also, rapid ascent in the jump aircraft without all nitrogen flushed from the bloodstream can lead to decompression sickness (also known as caisson disease or "the bends").

A typical HALO exercise will require a pre-breathing period (30–45 minutes) prior to jump where the jumper breathes 100% oxygen in order to flush nitrogen from their bloodstream. Also, a HALO jumper will employ an oxygen bottle during the jump. Danger can come from medical conditions affecting the jumper. For example, cigarette smoking, alcohol and drug use (including histamine antagonists, sedatives, and analgesics), anemia, carbon monoxide, fatigue and anxiety can all lead to a jumper being more susceptible to hypoxia. In addition, problems with the oxygen bottle and during the changeover from the pre-breather to the oxygen bottle can result in the return of nitrogen to the jumper's bloodstream and, therefore, an increased likelihood of decompression sickness. Theoretically, a single breath of atmospheric air may elevate the jumper's arterial nitrogen level to dangerous levels. A jumper suffering from hypoxia may lose consciousness and therefore be unable to open his parachute. A jumper suffering from decompression sickness may die or become permanently disabled from nitrogen bubbles in the bloodstream, which causes inflammation of joints.

Another risk is from the low ambient temperatures prevalent at higher altitudes. At an altitude of 35,000 feet, the jumper faces temperatures of –45 °C (–50 °F), and can experience frostbite. However, HALO jumpers generally wear polypropylene knit undergarments and other warm clothing to prevent this.

HALO carries the additional risk that if the parachute fails to deploy or lines become tangled, there is less time to resort to the reserve (back-up parachute) or untangle the lines, though the reserve is the best option if this were to occur.

Typical equipment


In a typical HALO exercise, a parachutist will jump with:


 * an altimeter
 * an automatic [parachute] activation device (AAD).
 * a parachute
 * a knife
 * a helmet
 * a pair of gloves
 * a pair of military free-fall boots
 * bailout oxygen
 * a 50–100+ pound combat pack with fighting and sustenance gear

Example of use

 * Free fall parachute insertions were utilized during Operation Iraqi Freedom, as a means of bypassing enemy early warning systems.

In fiction
The 2012 Relativity Media film, "Act of Valor" features an MFF insertion of SEAL Team 7 into hostile territory.
 * The jump was successfully orchestrated by James Bond in Tomorrow Never Dies.
 * A HALO jump is performed in the opening scene of Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater.
 * In the film Air Force One a team of US Special Ops soldiers are seen performing a HAHO to land on the roof of a palace.
 * In the 2011 video game Battlefield 3 a HALO jump is performed by Russian GRU operatives.
 * In the second episode of Last Resort (U.S. TV series), a Russian Spetsnaz team performs a HALO jump.
 * Visceral Games' "Dead Space 2" Features a variation of a HALO Jump, but it is performed in space, and with thrusters to slow the descent rather than a parachute.
 * In the game "Medal of Honor: Airborne" Entrance by parachute is a crucial part of the game.
 * Bungie's video game series "Halo" features a variation of a HALO jump where a group of special forces soldiers, known as "Orbital-Drop Shock Troopers," or "ODST's," are dropped from a spaceship onto a planet's surface from high orbit in specialized drop-pods.
 * On the 2012 game "Call of Duty: Black Ops 2" the final mission you perform a HALO jump in which you use a Wing Suit rather than Parachute.