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The [[invasion of Normandy]] in June and [[Operation Dragoon|a second invasion]] in the south in August, put over two million front line and support troops of the [[Western Allies]] into France in 1944. |
The [[invasion of Normandy]] in June and [[Operation Dragoon|a second invasion]] in the south in August, put over two million front line and support troops of the [[Western Allies]] into France in 1944. |
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| − | The [[Liberation of Paris]] followed on 25 August. Except for German forces penned in the south-west (e.g. around Bordeaux) or in ports, the majority of German troops were pushed back to the [[Siegfried Line]] by the end of 1944. After the war, the repatriation for demobilisation of the troops took time. Even in 1946, months after VE-day there were still about 1.5 million troops in Europe.<ref>Levenstein p90</ref> The housing and management of the thousands of troops awaiting embarkation on a ship for home was a problem. |
+ | The [[Liberation of Paris]] followed on 25 August. Except for German forces penned in the south-west (e.g. around Bordeaux) or in ports, the majority of German troops were pushed back to the [[Siegfried Line]] by the end of 1944. After the war, the repatriation for demobilisation of the troops took time. Even in 1946, months after VE-day there were still about 1.5 million troops in Europe.<ref>Levenstein p90</ref> The housing and management of the thousands of troops awaiting embarkation on a ship for home was a problem. |
| − | |||
''Life'' magazine reported the widespread view among American troops of France as "a tremendous brothel inhabited by 40 million hedonists who spent all their time eating, drinking, making love and in general having a hell of a good time".<ref name="Levenstein2010">{{cite book|author=Harvey Levenstein|title=We'll Always Have Paris: American Tourists in France since 1930|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=36xgYf4G8JoC&pg=PA92|accessdate=9 June 2013|date=15 March 2010|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-47380-2|pages=92–}}</ref><ref name="Inc1945">{{cite book|author=Time Inc|title=LIFE|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ukgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA20|accessdate=9 June 2013|date=10 December 1945|publisher=Time Inc|pages=20–|id={{ISSN|00243019}}}}</ref> |
''Life'' magazine reported the widespread view among American troops of France as "a tremendous brothel inhabited by 40 million hedonists who spent all their time eating, drinking, making love and in general having a hell of a good time".<ref name="Levenstein2010">{{cite book|author=Harvey Levenstein|title=We'll Always Have Paris: American Tourists in France since 1930|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=36xgYf4G8JoC&pg=PA92|accessdate=9 June 2013|date=15 March 2010|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-47380-2|pages=92–}}</ref><ref name="Inc1945">{{cite book|author=Time Inc|title=LIFE|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ukgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA20|accessdate=9 June 2013|date=10 December 1945|publisher=Time Inc|pages=20–|id={{ISSN|00243019}}}}</ref> |
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By the late summer of 1944, soon after the [[Invasion of Normandy]], women in [[Normandy]] began to complain about rapes by American soldiers.<ref name=s20130529/> Hundreds of cases were reported.<ref name=afp20130526>{{cite news | first=Fabienne| last=Faur | title=GI's were liberators yes, but also trouble in Normandy | date=2013-05-26 | publisher=Agence France-Presse | url =http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hY3cUraWo4fVJqWbA34Fd2IeTFOQ?docId=CNG.26cca045d911d64d66269c72328f270e.b11 | accessdate = 2013-05-30|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20130527105937/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hY3cUraWo4fVJqWbA34Fd2IeTFOQ?docId=CNG.26cca045d911d64d66269c72328f270e.b11|archivedate=2013-05-27}}</ref> |
By the late summer of 1944, soon after the [[Invasion of Normandy]], women in [[Normandy]] began to complain about rapes by American soldiers.<ref name=s20130529/> Hundreds of cases were reported.<ref name=afp20130526>{{cite news | first=Fabienne| last=Faur | title=GI's were liberators yes, but also trouble in Normandy | date=2013-05-26 | publisher=Agence France-Presse | url =http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hY3cUraWo4fVJqWbA34Fd2IeTFOQ?docId=CNG.26cca045d911d64d66269c72328f270e.b11 | accessdate = 2013-05-30|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20130527105937/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hY3cUraWo4fVJqWbA34Fd2IeTFOQ?docId=CNG.26cca045d911d64d66269c72328f270e.b11|archivedate=2013-05-27}}</ref> |
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| − | In 1945, after the end of the war in Europe, Le Havre was filled with American servicemen awaiting return to the States. A Le Havre citizen wrote to the mayor that the people of Le Havre were "attacked, robbed, run over both on the street and in our houses" and "This is a regime of terror, imposed by |
+ | In 1945, after the end of the war in Europe, Le Havre was filled with American servicemen awaiting return to the States. A Le Havre citizen wrote to the mayor that the people of Le Havre were "attacked, robbed, run over both on the street and in our houses" and "This is a regime of terror, imposed by bandits in uniform."<ref name=s20130529>{{cite news | author= Mathieu von Rohr | title='Bandits in Uniform': The Dark Side of GIs in Liberated France| date=May 29, 2013 | publisher=Spiegel | url =http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/new-book-reveals-dark-side-of-american-soldiers-in-liberated-france-a-902266.html | accessdate = 2013-05-31}}</ref> A coffeehouse owner from Le Havre testified "We expected friends who would not make us ashamed of our defeat. Instead, there came only incomprehension, arrogance, incredibly bad manners and the swagger of conquerors."<ref name=an20130529>{{cite news | title=American WWII GIs were dangerous sex-crazed rapists who the French feared as much as the Germans, explosive book claims| date=29 May 2013 | publisher=[[Associated Newspapers]] | url =http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2332670/American-WWII-GIs-dangerous-sex-crazed-rapists-French-feared-Germans-explosive-book-claims.html?ito=feeds-newsxml | accessdate = 2013-05-31}}</ref> Such behavior also was common in Cherbourg. One resident stated that "With the Germans, the men had to camouflage themselves -- but with the [[American people|American]]s, we had to hide the women."<ref name=afp20130526/> |
| − | U.S. troops committed 208 rapes and about 30 murders in the department of Manche.<ref name="Wieviorka329">{{cite book |last= Wieviorka |first= Olivier |title= Normandy: From the Landings to the Liberation of Paris |url=http://books.google.fr/books?id=rwCmJiSaREwC&pg=PA329&dq=Rape+during+the+liberation+of+France&hl=en&sa=X&ei=8r2sUbTVM4fPkQXb4oGYBw&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false |publisher= |
+ | U.S. troops committed 208 rapes and about 30 murders in the department of Manche.<ref name="Wieviorka329">{{cite book |last= Wieviorka |first= Olivier |title= Normandy: From the Landings to the Liberation of Paris |url=http://books.google.fr/books?id=rwCmJiSaREwC&pg=PA329&dq=Rape+during+the+liberation+of+France&hl=en&sa=X&ei=8r2sUbTVM4fPkQXb4oGYBw&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false |publisher= Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |year=2010 |ISBN= 0674047478 |page= 329}}</ref> French men also raped women perceived as collaborators with the Germans.<ref name="Virgili194">{{cite book |last= Virgili |first= Fabrice |title= Shorn Women: Gender and Punishment in Liberation France |url=http://books.google.fr/books?id=rIWksyfmHf8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Shorn+Women&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Ly6zUb6GEorK0wH1r4G4Dw&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=collaborators&f=false |publisher= [[Berg Publishers]] |year=2002 |ISBN= 1859735843 |page= 193}}</ref> |
==U.S. military response== |
==U.S. military response== |
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A brothel, Blue and Gray Corral, was set up near the village of St. Renan in September 1944 by Maj. Gen. [[Charles H. Gerhardt]], commander of the infantry division that landed at Omaha Beach, partly to counter a wave of rape accusations against G.I.’s. (It was shut down after a mere five hours.) <ref name="New York Times">{{cite news | title=The Dark Side of Liberation| date=May 20, 2013| publisher=New York Times | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/21/books/rape-by-american-soldiers-in-world-war-ii-france.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0/ | accessdate = September 10, 2013}}</ref> |
A brothel, Blue and Gray Corral, was set up near the village of St. Renan in September 1944 by Maj. Gen. [[Charles H. Gerhardt]], commander of the infantry division that landed at Omaha Beach, partly to counter a wave of rape accusations against G.I.’s. (It was shut down after a mere five hours.) <ref name="New York Times">{{cite news | title=The Dark Side of Liberation| date=May 20, 2013| publisher=New York Times | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/21/books/rape-by-american-soldiers-in-world-war-ii-france.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0/ | accessdate = September 10, 2013}}</ref> |
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[[File:General Dwight D. Eisenhower.jpg|thumb|[[General]] [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces.<ref name=cbs20130602/>]] |
[[File:General Dwight D. Eisenhower.jpg|thumb|[[General]] [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces.<ref name=cbs20130602/>]] |
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| − | The [[Free French Forces]] high command sent a letter of complaint to the [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force|Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary Force]] General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]].<ref name=cbs20130602/> He gave his commanders orders to take action against all allegations of murder, rape, assault, robbery and other crimes.<ref name=cbs20130602>{{cite news | title=When some liberators were criminals| date=June 2, 2013| publisher=CBS News | url =http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-3445_162-57587207/when-the-liberators-were-criminals/ | accessdate = June 2, 2013}}</ref> In August 1945, Pierre Voisin, mayor of Le Havre urged [[Colonel]] Thomas Weed, U.S. commander in the region, to set up brothels outside Le Havre.<ref name=afp20130526/> However, U.S. commanders refused.<ref name=afp20130526/> |
+ | The [[Free French Forces]] high command sent a letter of complaint to the [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force|Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary Force]] General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]].<ref name=cbs20130602/> He gave his commanders orders to take action against all allegations of murder, rape, assault, robbery and other crimes.<ref name=cbs20130602>{{cite news | title=When some liberators were criminals| date=June 2, 2013| publisher=CBS News | url =http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-3445_162-57587207/when-the-liberators-were-criminals/ | accessdate = June 2, 2013}}</ref> In August 1945, Pierre Voisin, mayor of Le Havre urged [[Colonel]] Thomas Weed, U.S. commander in the region, to set up brothels outside Le Havre.<ref name=afp20130526/> However, U.S. commanders refused.<ref name=afp20130526/> |
| − | |||
One-hundred and thirty of the 153 troops disciplined for rape by the army were African Americans.<ref>{{cite news | first=Laura | last= Oneale | title=What Soldiers Do an American WWII GI Expose | date=May 30, 2013 | publisher=[[Guardian Express]] | url =http://guardianlv.com/2013/05/what-soldiers-do-an-american-wwii-gi-expose/ | accessdate = 2013-05-31}}</ref> With the help of the French authorities U.S. officers allegedly scapegoated African American soldiers, proclaiming rape to be [[black crime]].<ref name="roberts257">{{cite book |last= Roberts |first= Mary |title= What Soldiers Do: Sex and the American GI in World War II France |url=http://books.google.de/books?id=m0Qwu3qV374C&printsec=frontcover&dq=What+Soldiers+Do:+Sex+and+the+American+GI+in+World+War+II+France&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=oVCnUezAIZHpkAXP4IGQDg&redir_esc=y |publisher= University of Chicago Press |year=2013 |ISBN= 0226923096 |page= 257}}</ref> [[Military court]]s sentenced African American soldiers to more severe punishment than white American soldiers.<ref name="Hitchcock53">{{cite book |last= Hitchcock |first= William |title= The Bitter Road to Freedom: A New History of the Liberation of Europe |url=http://books.google.fr/books?id=1QSWIsVPHEoC&pg=PA54&dq=Rape+during+the+liberation+of+France&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=OriyUcXFIoSmlAXg1IGYBQ&ved=0CFUQ6AEwBTgU#v=onepage&q=Rape%20during%20the%20liberation%20of%20France&f=false |publisher= Free Press |year=2009 |ISBN= 1439123306 |page= 53}}</ref> U.S. forces executed 29 soldiers as conducting rapes, including 25 African Americans.<ref name=bbc20090605>{{cite news | first=Hugh | last=Schofield | title=Revisionists challenge D-Day story | date=5 June 2009 | publisher=BBC | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8084210.stm | accessdate = 2013-06-08}}</ref> |
One-hundred and thirty of the 153 troops disciplined for rape by the army were African Americans.<ref>{{cite news | first=Laura | last= Oneale | title=What Soldiers Do an American WWII GI Expose | date=May 30, 2013 | publisher=[[Guardian Express]] | url =http://guardianlv.com/2013/05/what-soldiers-do-an-american-wwii-gi-expose/ | accessdate = 2013-05-31}}</ref> With the help of the French authorities U.S. officers allegedly scapegoated African American soldiers, proclaiming rape to be [[black crime]].<ref name="roberts257">{{cite book |last= Roberts |first= Mary |title= What Soldiers Do: Sex and the American GI in World War II France |url=http://books.google.de/books?id=m0Qwu3qV374C&printsec=frontcover&dq=What+Soldiers+Do:+Sex+and+the+American+GI+in+World+War+II+France&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=oVCnUezAIZHpkAXP4IGQDg&redir_esc=y |publisher= University of Chicago Press |year=2013 |ISBN= 0226923096 |page= 257}}</ref> [[Military court]]s sentenced African American soldiers to more severe punishment than white American soldiers.<ref name="Hitchcock53">{{cite book |last= Hitchcock |first= William |title= The Bitter Road to Freedom: A New History of the Liberation of Europe |url=http://books.google.fr/books?id=1QSWIsVPHEoC&pg=PA54&dq=Rape+during+the+liberation+of+France&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=OriyUcXFIoSmlAXg1IGYBQ&ved=0CFUQ6AEwBTgU#v=onepage&q=Rape%20during%20the%20liberation%20of%20France&f=false |publisher= Free Press |year=2009 |ISBN= 1439123306 |page= 53}}</ref> U.S. forces executed 29 soldiers as conducting rapes, including 25 African Americans.<ref name=bbc20090605>{{cite news | first=Hugh | last=Schofield | title=Revisionists challenge D-Day story | date=5 June 2009 | publisher=BBC | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8084210.stm | accessdate = 2013-06-08}}</ref> |
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*{{cite book |last= Lilly |first= J. Robert |title= Taken by Force: Rape and American GIs in Europe in World War II |publisher= Palgrave Macmillan |year=2007 |isbn=0-230-50647-X}} |
*{{cite book |last= Lilly |first= J. Robert |title= Taken by Force: Rape and American GIs in Europe in World War II |publisher= Palgrave Macmillan |year=2007 |isbn=0-230-50647-X}} |
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*{{cite book|last= Hitchcock |first= William |title= The Bitter Road to Freedom: A New History of the Liberation of Europe |url=http://books.google.fr/books?id=1QSWIsVPHEoC&pg=PA54&dq=Rape+during+the+liberation+of+France&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=OriyUcXFIoSmlAXg1IGYBQ&ved=0CFUQ6AEwBTgU#v=onepage&q=Rape%20during%20the%20liberation%20of%20France&f=false |publisher= Free Press |year=2009 |ISBN= 1439123306}} |
*{{cite book|last= Hitchcock |first= William |title= The Bitter Road to Freedom: A New History of the Liberation of Europe |url=http://books.google.fr/books?id=1QSWIsVPHEoC&pg=PA54&dq=Rape+during+the+liberation+of+France&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=OriyUcXFIoSmlAXg1IGYBQ&ved=0CFUQ6AEwBTgU#v=onepage&q=Rape%20during%20the%20liberation%20of%20France&f=false |publisher= Free Press |year=2009 |ISBN= 1439123306}} |
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| − | *{{cite book |last= Wieviorka |first= Olivier |title= Normandy: From the Landings to the Liberation of Paris |url=http://books.google.fr/books?id=rwCmJiSaREwC&pg=PA329&dq=Rape+during+the+liberation+of+France&hl=en&sa=X&ei=8r2sUbTVM4fPkQXb4oGYBw&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false |publisher= |
+ | *{{cite book |last= Wieviorka |first= Olivier |title= Normandy: From the Landings to the Liberation of Paris |url=http://books.google.fr/books?id=rwCmJiSaREwC&pg=PA329&dq=Rape+during+the+liberation+of+France&hl=en&sa=X&ei=8r2sUbTVM4fPkQXb4oGYBw&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false |publisher= Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |year=2010 |isbn=0674047478}} |
==External links== |
==External links== |
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[[Category:France–United States relations]] |
[[Category:France–United States relations]] |
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[[Category:Rape in France]] |
[[Category:Rape in France]] |
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| − | [[Category: |
+ | [[Category:Wartime sexual violence in World War II]] |
[[Category:War crimes by the United States during World War II]] |
[[Category:War crimes by the United States during World War II]] |
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[[Category:African-American segregation in the United States]] |
[[Category:African-American segregation in the United States]] |
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Revision as of 23:43, 23 December 2018
Rape during the liberation of France is documented both during and after the advance of United States forces across France against Nazi Germany in later stages of World War II.
Background
The invasion of Normandy in June and a second invasion in the south in August, put over two million front line and support troops of the Western Allies into France in 1944.
The Liberation of Paris followed on 25 August. Except for German forces penned in the south-west (e.g. around Bordeaux) or in ports, the majority of German troops were pushed back to the Siegfried Line by the end of 1944. After the war, the repatriation for demobilisation of the troops took time. Even in 1946, months after VE-day there were still about 1.5 million troops in Europe.[1] The housing and management of the thousands of troops awaiting embarkation on a ship for home was a problem. Life magazine reported the widespread view among American troops of France as "a tremendous brothel inhabited by 40 million hedonists who spent all their time eating, drinking, making love and in general having a hell of a good time".[2][3]
French complaints
Normandy region
By the late summer of 1944, soon after the Invasion of Normandy, women in Normandy began to complain about rapes by American soldiers.[4] Hundreds of cases were reported.[5]
In 1945, after the end of the war in Europe, Le Havre was filled with American servicemen awaiting return to the States. A Le Havre citizen wrote to the mayor that the people of Le Havre were "attacked, robbed, run over both on the street and in our houses" and "This is a regime of terror, imposed by bandits in uniform."[4] A coffeehouse owner from Le Havre testified "We expected friends who would not make us ashamed of our defeat. Instead, there came only incomprehension, arrogance, incredibly bad manners and the swagger of conquerors."[6] Such behavior also was common in Cherbourg. One resident stated that "With the Germans, the men had to camouflage themselves -- but with the Americans, we had to hide the women."[5]
U.S. troops committed 208 rapes and about 30 murders in the department of Manche.[7] French men also raped women perceived as collaborators with the Germans.[8]
U.S. military response
A brothel, Blue and Gray Corral, was set up near the village of St. Renan in September 1944 by Maj. Gen. Charles H. Gerhardt, commander of the infantry division that landed at Omaha Beach, partly to counter a wave of rape accusations against G.I.’s. (It was shut down after a mere five hours.) [9]
General Dwight D. Eisenhower Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces.[10]
The Free French Forces high command sent a letter of complaint to the Supreme Commander Allied Expeditionary Force General Dwight D. Eisenhower.[10] He gave his commanders orders to take action against all allegations of murder, rape, assault, robbery and other crimes.[10] In August 1945, Pierre Voisin, mayor of Le Havre urged Colonel Thomas Weed, U.S. commander in the region, to set up brothels outside Le Havre.[5] However, U.S. commanders refused.[5] One-hundred and thirty of the 153 troops disciplined for rape by the army were African Americans.[11] With the help of the French authorities U.S. officers allegedly scapegoated African American soldiers, proclaiming rape to be black crime.[12] Military courts sentenced African American soldiers to more severe punishment than white American soldiers.[13] U.S. forces executed 29 soldiers as conducting rapes, including 25 African Americans.[14]
Historical and criminological studies
According to Alice Kaplan, an American historian of France and chair of the Department of French at Yale University, the U.S. military tolerated rape of French women less than that of German women. She argued that the number of rapes is well documented and is less than that of some other armies during that era, writing that "Nine hundred and four American soldiers were tried for rape in Europe, and even if the actual numbers were much higher, they do not compare with a terrible legacy of World War II-era rapes" committed, for example, by the Japanese in Nanking, by Germans in the German-occupied areas, by the French in Italy and by the Soviet soldiers across Eastern Europe and Germany.[15] J. Robert Lilly, Regents professor of sociology and criminology at Northern Kentucky University, reported in Taken by Force: Rape and American GIs in Europe in World War II his estimate that 14,000 rapes were committed by U.S. soldiers in France, Germany and the United Kingdom between 1942 and 1945.[16][17] More specifically, Lilly estimated that U.S. servicemen committed around 3,500 rapes in France between June 1944 and the end of the war.[14]
See also
- Allied forces
- Rape during the liberation of Poland
- Rape during the occupation of Germany
- Rape during the occupation of Japan
- Axis forces
References
- ↑ Levenstein p90
- ↑ Harvey Levenstein (15 March 2010). We'll Always Have Paris: American Tourists in France since 1930. University of Chicago Press. pp. 92–. ISBN 978-0-226-47380-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=36xgYf4G8JoC&pg=PA92. Retrieved 9 June 2013.
- ↑ Time Inc (10 December 1945). LIFE. Time Inc. pp. 20–. ISSN 00243019. http://books.google.com/books?id=ukgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA20. Retrieved 9 June 2013.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Mathieu von Rohr (May 29, 2013). "'Bandits in Uniform': The Dark Side of GIs in Liberated France". Spiegel. http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/new-book-reveals-dark-side-of-american-soldiers-in-liberated-france-a-902266.html. Retrieved 2013-05-31.
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Faur, Fabienne (2013-05-26). "GI's were liberators yes, but also trouble in Normandy". Agence France-Presse. Archived from the original on 2013-05-27. http://web.archive.org/web/20130527105937/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hY3cUraWo4fVJqWbA34Fd2IeTFOQ?docId=CNG.26cca045d911d64d66269c72328f270e.b11. Retrieved 2013-05-30.
- ↑ "American WWII GIs were dangerous sex-crazed rapists who the French feared as much as the Germans, explosive book claims". Associated Newspapers. 29 May 2013. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2332670/American-WWII-GIs-dangerous-sex-crazed-rapists-French-feared-Germans-explosive-book-claims.html?ito=feeds-newsxml. Retrieved 2013-05-31.
- ↑ Wieviorka, Olivier (2010). Normandy: From the Landings to the Liberation of Paris. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. p. 329. ISBN 0674047478. http://books.google.fr/books?id=rwCmJiSaREwC&pg=PA329&dq=Rape+during+the+liberation+of+France&hl=en&sa=X&ei=8r2sUbTVM4fPkQXb4oGYBw&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ↑ Virgili, Fabrice (2002). Shorn Women: Gender and Punishment in Liberation France. Berg Publishers. p. 193. ISBN 1859735843. http://books.google.fr/books?id=rIWksyfmHf8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Shorn+Women&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Ly6zUb6GEorK0wH1r4G4Dw&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=collaborators&f=false.
- ↑ "The Dark Side of Liberation". New York Times. May 20, 2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/21/books/rape-by-american-soldiers-in-world-war-ii-france.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0/. Retrieved September 10, 2013.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 "When some liberators were criminals". CBS News. June 2, 2013. http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-3445_162-57587207/when-the-liberators-were-criminals/. Retrieved June 2, 2013.
- ↑ Oneale, Laura (May 30, 2013). "What Soldiers Do an American WWII GI Expose". Guardian Express. http://guardianlv.com/2013/05/what-soldiers-do-an-american-wwii-gi-expose/. Retrieved 2013-05-31.
- ↑ Roberts, Mary (2013). What Soldiers Do: Sex and the American GI in World War II France. University of Chicago Press. p. 257. ISBN 0226923096. http://books.google.de/books?id=m0Qwu3qV374C&printsec=frontcover&dq=What+Soldiers+Do:+Sex+and+the+American+GI+in+World+War+II+France&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=oVCnUezAIZHpkAXP4IGQDg&redir_esc=y.
- ↑ Hitchcock, William (2009). The Bitter Road to Freedom: A New History of the Liberation of Europe. Free Press. p. 53. ISBN 1439123306. http://books.google.fr/books?id=1QSWIsVPHEoC&pg=PA54&dq=Rape+during+the+liberation+of+France&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=OriyUcXFIoSmlAXg1IGYBQ&ved=0CFUQ6AEwBTgU#v=onepage&q=Rape%20during%20the%20liberation%20of%20France&f=false.
- ↑ 14.0 14.1 Schofield, Hugh (5 June 2009). "Revisionists challenge D-Day story". BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8084210.stm. Retrieved 2013-06-08.
- ↑ Alice Kaplan (30 August 2005). The Interpreter. Free Press. pp. 154–. ISBN 978-0-7432-7481-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=xXosaqz_iUgC&pg=PA154. Retrieved 8 June 2013.
- ↑ Lilly, J. Robert. (2007) Taken by Force: Rape and American GIs in Europe in World War II. Palgrave Macmillan.
- ↑ Wilson, David (27 March 2007). "The secret war: We know that conflict creates conditions in which soldiers commit rape and murder. Why should American GIs in the 1940s be an exception?". Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2007/mar/27/thesecretwar. Retrieved 2013-05-31.
Further reading
- Virgili, Fabrice (2002). Shorn Women: Gender and Punishment in Liberation France. Berg Publishers. ISBN 1859735843. http://books.google.fr/books?id=rIWksyfmHf8C&pg=PA194&lpg=PA194&dq=Rape+during+the+liberation+of+France&source=bl&ots=cDiIu987GQ&sig=pM_fsjmBrsTQdM3FUOheCwcm-vk&hl=en&sa=X&ei=v7OsUfnlJo6ukgXgpIDYAQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Rape%20during%20the%20liberation%20of%20France&f=false.
- Lilly, J. Robert (2007). Taken by Force: Rape and American GIs in Europe in World War II. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-230-50647-X.
- Hitchcock, William (2009). The Bitter Road to Freedom: A New History of the Liberation of Europe. Free Press. ISBN 1439123306. http://books.google.fr/books?id=1QSWIsVPHEoC&pg=PA54&dq=Rape+during+the+liberation+of+France&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=OriyUcXFIoSmlAXg1IGYBQ&ved=0CFUQ6AEwBTgU#v=onepage&q=Rape%20during%20the%20liberation%20of%20France&f=false.
- Wieviorka, Olivier (2010). Normandy: From the Landings to the Liberation of Paris. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674047478. http://books.google.fr/books?id=rwCmJiSaREwC&pg=PA329&dq=Rape+during+the+liberation+of+France&hl=en&sa=X&ei=8r2sUbTVM4fPkQXb4oGYBw&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false.
External links
- Author Interview:Mary Louise Roberts, National Public Radio, May 31, 2013
The original article can be found at Rape during the liberation of France and the edit history here.