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Rojava conflict

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Rojava conflict
Part of the Syrian Civil War
File:YPG fighters 2.jpg
YPG fighters celebrating a victory on their return to base
Date19 July 2012 – ongoing
(11 years and 9 months)
LocationAl-Hasakah Governorate, Ar-Raqqah Governorate,[13] Aleppo Governorate Syria
Status Ongoing
Belligerents

Ala kurdên rojava Rojava[1]

Inherent Resolve Operation Inherent Resolve

  • Flag of the United States United States
  • Flag of Canada Canada
  • Flag of Jordan Jordan
  • Flag of France France [7]
  • Flag of Qatar Qatar
  • Flag of the United Arab Emirates United Arab Emirates
  • Flag of Bahrain Bahrain
  • Flag of Morocco Morocco
  • Flag of Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia

Flag of Syria 2011, observed Syrian opposition

Flag of Jabhat al-Nusra al-Nusra Front

Ghuraba al-Sham

Flag of Syria Syrian Arab Republic

Flag of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant2 Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant
Commanders and leaders

Ala kurdên rojava Salih Muslim Muhammad (PYD co-leader)
Ala kurdên rojava Asya Abdullah (PYD co-leader)
People's Protection Units Flag Sipan Hemo (YPG commander)
People's Protection Units Flag Nujin Derik (YPG Aleppo commander)
People's Protection Units Flag Çekjîn Efrîn†[14] (YPG Dêrik commander)

Hajji Ahmed Kurdi (Jabhat al-Akrad commander)[15]

Mahmud al-Kari'i† (Ahrar ash-Sham senior commander in Hasakah)
Walid Faysal Al Ashoui (Marouane Ben Al Hakem Brigade Leader)†
Abu Louay al-Haleb[16]

Nawaf Ragheb al-Bashir[17]
Abu Ahmed (Jabhat Al Nusra Hasakah commander)[18]		 Muhammad Fares (Qamishli Popular Committees leader)[11]

Flag of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant2 Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi (Self-declared Caliph)
Flag of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant2 Abu Ayman al-Iraqi† (Head of Military Shura)[19][20]
Flag of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant2 Abu Suleiman (Replacement Military Chief)[20]
Flag of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant2 Abu Omar al-Shishani (Field commander in Syria)
Flag of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant2 Abu Ali al-Anbari (Deputy, Syria)
Flag of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant2 Abu Khattab al-Kurdi† (Kobanî assault commander)[21][22]

Flag of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant2 Abu Musab
(ISIL emir of Tell Abyad)
Strength

YPG: 60,000-65,000 (claimed)[23]

Jabhat al-Akrad: 7,000 (claimed)[24]

Free Syrian Army: 50,000

Islamic Front:
40,000-70,000		 1,500 soldiers (54th special Forces)[25] Unknown
Casualties and losses
3,000 Killed[26] 152–178 killed (until 16 July 2013; multiple claims)[27] 376 killed (2013; YPG claim)[28] 7,887 killed, 598 captured (2013–2014; YPG claim)[28][29]
156 civilians killed (until 18 July 2013)[30]

The Rojava conflict, also known as the Rojava Revolution, is a political upheaval and military conflict taking place in Northern Syria, known as Rojava. During the Syrian civil war, a coalition of Kurdish groups have sought to establish the Constitution of Rojava inside the de facto autonomous region, while military wings and allied militias have fought to maintain control of the region. The revolution has been characterized by the prominent role played by women both on the battlefield and within the newly formed political system, as well as the implementation of democratic confederalism, a form of grassroots democracy based on local assemblies.

Background[]

Further information: Kurds in Syria and Rojava

Rojava is the Kurdish name for the northern region of Syria. The area is strategically important, because it contains a large percentage of Syria's oil supplies.[31] Most of the over 2 million Syrian Kurds live in Rojava, making up the majority of the area, followed by Syrian Arabs. There are also small communities of Assyrians and Turkmen. Ethnic tension is high, especially between Kurds and Arabs, due in large part to decades of "Arabization" which outlawed Kurdish language and music, evicted tens of thousands of Kurds from their homes and farmland and stripped over 120,000 of their citizenship altogether.

State discrimination[]

Further information: Human rights in Syria

Anti-government sentiment has been present among the Kurdish population for a long time.[32] The Syrian government has never officially acknowledged the existence of Kurds in Syria[32] and in 1962 120,000 Syrian Kurds were stripped of their citizenship, leaving them stateless.[33] The Kurdish language and culture have also been suppressed. The government attempted to resolve these issues in 2011 by granting all Kurds citizenship, but only an estimated 6,000 out of 150,000 stateless Kurds have been given nationality and most discriminatory regulations, including the ban on teaching Kurdish, are still on the books.[34] Due to the Syrian Civil War that began in 2011, the government is no longer in a position to enforce these laws.

Qamishli uprising[]

Further information: 2004 al-Qamishli riots

In 2004, riots broke out against the government in the northeastern city of Qamishli. During a soccer match between a local Kurdish team and a visiting Arab team from Deir ez-Zor, some Arab fans brandished portraits of Saddam Hussein (who slaughtered tens of thousands of Kurds in Southern Kurdistan during the genocidal Al-Anfal Campaign in the 1980s). Tensions quickly escalated into open protests, with Kurds raising their flag and taking to the streets to demand cultural and political rights. Security forces fired into the crowd killing 6 Kurds, including 3 children. Protesters went on to burn down the Ba'ath Party's local political office. At least 30 and as many as 100 Kurds were killed by the government before the protests were quelled. Thousands of Kurds fled to Iraq afterwards, where a refugee camp was established. Occasional clashes between Kurdish protesters and government forces occurred in the following years.[35][36]

Origins[]

Syrian uprising[]

In 2011 the Arab Spring spread to Syria. Similar to the beginning of the Tunisian Revolution, Syrian citizen Hasan Ali Akleh soaked himself in gasoline and set himself on fire in the northern city of Al-Hasakah. This inspired activists to call for a "Day of Rage", which ended up being sparsely attended, mostly because of fear of repression from the Syrian government. Days later, however, protests again took place, this time in response to the police beating of a shopkeeper.[citation needed]

Smaller protests continued, but it was on 7 March 2011, when thirteen political prisoners went on hunger strike, that momentum began to grow against the Assad government. Three days later dozens of Syrian Kurds went on hunger strike in solidarity.[37] On 12 March, major protests took place in Al-Qamishli and Al-Hasakah to both protest the Assad regime and commemorate Kurdish Martyrs Day.[38]

Protests grew over the months of March and April 2011. The Assad regime attempted to appease Kurds by promising to grant citizenship to thousands of Kurds, who until that time had been stripped of any legal status.[39] By the summer, protests had only intensified, as did violent crackdowns by the Syrian government.

File:Qamishli-protest.jpg

Protests against the Assad regime and for Kurdish rights in al-Qamishli, the site of the al-Qamishli Uprising which took place in 2004.

In August a coalition of opposition groups formed the Syrian National Council in hopes of creating a democratic, pluralistic alternative to the Assad regime. However, internal fighting and disagreement over politics and inclusion plagued the group from its early beginnings. In the fall of 2011 the popular uprising escalated to an armed conflict. The Free Syrian Army (FSA) began to coalesce and armed insurrection spread largely across the central and southern parts of Syria.[citation needed]

Kurds and government opposition negotiations[]

2013 VOA report about the Kurdish situation in Syria

The National Movement of Kurdish Parties in Syria, a coalition of Syria's 12 Kurdish parties, boycotted a Syrian opposition summit in Antalya, Turkey on 31 May 2011, stating that "any such meeting held in Turkey can only be a detriment to the Kurds in Syria, because Turkey is against the aspirations of the Kurds."[40]

During the August summit in Istanbul, which led to the creation of the Syrian National Council, only two of the parties in the National Movement of Kurdish Parties in Syria, the Kurdish Union Party and the Kurdish Freedom Party, attended the summit.[41]

Erbil Agreement[]

Serekani (Ra's al-'Ayn) Kurdish Syria

On 22 July 2012, Serê Kaniyê (Ra's al-'Ayn) pictured above and a series of other towns in the Kurdish inhabited northeast of Syria were captured by the People's Protection Units (YPG).

Anti-government protests had been ongoing in the Kurdish-inhabited areas of Syria since March 2011, as part of the wider Syrian uprising, but clashes started after the opposition Kurdish Democratic Union Party (PYD) and Kurdish National Council (KNC) signed a seven-point agreement on 11 June 2012 in Erbil under the auspice of Iraqi Kurdistan president Massoud Barzani. This agreement, however, failed to be implemented and so a new cooperation agreement between the two sides was signed on 12 July which saw the creation of the Kurdish Supreme Committee as a governing body of all Kurdish-controlled territories in Syria.[42][43][44]

YPG claims territory[]

The People's Protection Units (YPG) captured the city of Kobanî on 19 July 2012, followed by the capture of Amuda and Efrîn on 20 July,[45] thus entering the Syrian Civil War as belligerent. The KNC and PYD afterwards formed a joint leadership council to run the captured cities. The cities fell without any major clashes, as Syrian security forces withdrew without any major resistance.[45] The Syrian Army pulled out to fight elsewhere.[46]

The YPG forces continued with their advancement and on 21 July captured Al-Malikiyah (Kurdish language: Dêrika Hemko), which is located 10 kilometers from the Turkish border.[47] The rebels at the time also intended to capture Qamishli, the largest Syrian city with a Kurdish majority.[48] On the same day, the Syrian government attacked a patrol of Kurdish YPG members and wounded one fighter.[49] The next day it was reported that Kurdish forces were still fighting for Al-Malikiyah, where one young Kurdish activist was killed after government security forces opened fire on protesters. The YPG also took control over the towns of Ra's al-'Ayn (Kurdish language: Serê Kaniyê) and Al-Darbasiyah (Kurdish language: Dirbêsî), after the security and political units withdrew from these areas, following an ultimatum issued by the Kurds. On the same day, clashes erupted in Qamishli between YPG and government forces in which one Kurdish fighter was killed and two were wounded along with one government official.[50]

The ease with which Kurdish forces captured the towns and the government troops pulled back was speculated to be due to the government reaching an agreement with the Kurds so military forces from the area could be freed up to engage opposition forces in the rest of the country.[51] On 24 July, the PYD announced that Syrian security forces withdrew from the small Kurdish city of 16,000 of Al-Ma'bada (Kurdish language: Girkê Legê), located between Al-Malikiyah and the Turkish borders. The YPG forces afterwards took control of all government institutions.[52]

Popular protest continued in Rojava through 2011 and into the spring of 2012 though most Kurds and other Northern Syrians did not join the FSA because of disagreements over Kurdish representation in a future Syria.[53]

Self-governed Rojava established[]

See also: Rojava

On 1 August 2012 Assad forces on the periphery of the country are pulled into the intensifying conflict taking place in Aleppo. During this large withdraw from the north, the People's Protection Units (PYD), a pro-Kurdish militia that formed after the 2004 al-Qamishli riots[54] took control of at least parts of Qamishlo, Efrin, Amude, Terbaspi and Ayn El Arab with very little conflict or casualties.[55]

On 2 August 2012, the National Coordination Committee for Democratic Change announced that most Kurdish dominated cities in Syria, with the exception of Qamishli and Hasaka, were no longer controlled by government forces and were now being governed by Kurdish political parties.[56] In Qamishli, government military and police forces remained in their barracks and administration officials in the city allowed the Kurdish flag to be raised.[57]

It was reported in August that the Kurds in northern controlled Syria had set up local committees and checkpoints to search cars. The border crossing between northeastern Syria and Iraq was no longer occupied by government forces. Kurds stated that they would defend their towns if government or opposition forces attempted to enter them. In some areas of Qamishli, government checkpoints were still active, however, Kurds denied cooperation with the Syrian government and stated that the troops remained in their checkpoints with hopes of avoiding a military confrontation.[58] In the same month, the Free Syrian Army (FSA) successfully bombed the government's intelligence center in the city.[59]

After months of de facto rule, the PYD officially announced its regional autonomy on 9 January 2014. Elections had been held and popular assemblies crafted and approved Constitution of Rojava. Since then, residents have been organizing local assemblies, re-opening schools, establishing community centers and pushing back ISIS to gain control of further territory. They see their model of grassroots democracy as a model that can be implemented throughout the country in a post-Assad Syria.

Social revolution[]

After declaring autonomy, grassroots organizers, politicians and other community members have radically changed the social and political make up of the area. The extreme laws restricting independent political organizing, women's freedom, religious and cultural expression and the discriminatory policies carried out by the Assad regime have been abolished. In its place, a constitution guaranteeing the cultural, religious and political freedom of all people has been established. The constitution also explicitly states the equal rights and freedom of women and also "mandates public institutions to work towards the elimination of gender discrimination."[60]

The political and social changes taking place in Rojava have in large part been inspired by the libertarian socialist politics of Kurdish leader Abdullah Ocalan.[60]

Direct democracy[]

The Rojava cantons are governed through a combination of district and civil councils. District councils consist of 300 members as well as two elected co-presidents- one man and one woman. District councils decide and carry out administrative and economic duties such as garbage collection, land distribution and cooperative enterprises.[61] Civil councils exist to promote the social and political rights within the community.

Women's rights[]

Women's councils have formed to handle domestic abuse and sexual assault cases. Additionally, there is a 40% quota required of all councils in order for a vote to take place. There have also been the establishment of women's houses, which are safe houses for victims of violence to stay to seek refuge.[62]

Religious freedom[]

Christian Assyrians, Muslim Kurds and others have worked together both in fighting regime forces and Islamist groups as well as in managing political affairs. The right to religious expression is also safeguarded in the constitution. Because of this as well as the extreme hostility towards religious minorities in Islamist controlled areas has led to a large migration of religious minorities to Rojava.[63]

Cooperative economy[]

The vast majority of the economy continues to support forces fighting Assad forces, Islamist forces and now on occasion Turkish forces. However, the canton administration has been working to support worker cooperatives.[64]

Ethnic minority rights[]

Closely related to religious freedom and the protection of religious minorities is the protection of ethnic minorities. Kurds now have the right to study their language freely as do Assyrians. In some areas, there is an ethnic minority quota in addition to the gender quota for councils.[65]

Combatants[]

There are four major forces involved in the Rojava Revolution. The People's Protection Units are working with the PYD and other political parties to establish self-rule in Rojava. Syrian government forces still maintain rule in some areas of Rojava under the leadership of the Assad regime. A collection of Islamic forces, the largest being ISIS are fighting to rule the region by Sharia law. Finally, there are several militias under the general banner of the Free Syrian Army whose intentions and alliances have differed and shifted over time. At the moment, most FSA fighters are working with the YPG against Islamic forces and the Syrian government.

YPG-Syrian Government conflict[]

Main article: YPG and Syrian Government Conflict

While conflict between the YPG and Syrian Government has not been as active as fighting against Islamist forces, there have been several conflicts between the two forces. Territory once controlled by the Syrian government in Qamishli and al-Hasakah have both been lost to YPG forces.

YPG and FSA relations[]

Main article: YPG and FSA Relations

The relationship between the People's Protection Units (YPG) and the Free Syrian Army (FSA) has been one of tentative cooperation. Both are opposed to the Assad regime and ISIS, however clashes have taken place. Recently, the two forces have been working together to battle ISIS under the name of Euphrates Volcano.

YPG-Islamist conflict[]

Further information: Syrian Kurdish–Islamist conflict (2013–present)
Rojava june 2015

Rojava territory controlled by the YPG in November 2015

See also: Siege of Kobanî, Al-Hasakah offensive (February–March 2015), Al-Hasakah offensive (May 2015), Tell Abyad offensive (May–July 2015), Battle of Sarrin (June–July 2015), and Battle of Al-Hasakah (June–August 2015)

On 4 May 2013, YPG forces and Jihadist militants, including Al Nusra, clashed in areas close to the cities of Hasaka and Ras al-Ain.[66] Reports seemed to suggest that FSA forces were arming Arab tribes in the town of Tal Tamer; encouraging them to confront Kurdish groups. Despite hit and run attacks which led to the deaths of several YPG members as well as civilians, YPG forces reportedly held off the armed groups.[67]

Northern Syria offensive (2015)

Map of the territory changes during the YPG-led Northern Syria offensive (2015)

The Situation in Hasakah

The situation in the Al-Hasakah Governorate, as of 29 November 2015

YPG forces have clashed heavily with Islamist forces. Most notable have been the Siege of Kobani and more recently the Al-Hasakah Offensive and Tell Abyad Offensive. The YPG has been one of the most reliable and effective fighting forces against Islamic groups such as ISIL and al-Nusra Front.

Internal conflict[]

Main article: Rojava Revolution Internal Conflict

The majority of tension and conflict in Rojava has been between the YPG and Islamist groups. However, there has also been internal conflict between various Kurdish political parties and militias. This was particularly true at the beginning of the revolution, while those tensions have largely subsided as the autonomous administrations of Rojava have become more established and the urgency for a united front against Islamic forces has developed.

Towns under semi-autonomous rule[]

In November 2015, the following towns were under YPG control:

  1. Afrin (Efrîn)[68]
  2. Al-Darbasiyah (Dirbêsî)[50]
  3. Al-Jawadiyah (Çil Axa)[69]
  4. Al-Ma'bada (Girkê Legê)[52]
  5. Al-Malikiyah (Dêrika Hemko)[68]
  6. Al-Qahtaniyah (Tirbespî)[70][71]
  7. Ali Kuz (Aali Kôz)[72]
  8. Ashrafiyeh (Eşrefiye, district of Aleppo)[73]
  9. Amuda (Amûdê)[68]
  10. Ayn al-Arab (Kobanê)[68]
  11. Ain Diwar (Eyndîwer)[74]
  12. Jindires (Cindirês)[70]
  13. Rajo (Raco)[75]
  14. Ra's al-'Ayn (Serêkanî)[68]
  15. Sheikh Maqsood (Şêx Meqsûd, district of Aleppo)[73]
  16. Tel Adas (Girzîro)[76][77]
  17. Rumeylan[71]
  18. Tell Tamer (Girê Xurma[78]) also known as Tal Tamr or as Tal Tamir[79]
  19. Al-Yarubiya (Tel Koçer)
  20. Suluk or Saluq [80]
  21. Tell Abyad (Girê spî)[81]
  22. Ayn Issa (Bozanî)[82]
  23. Sarrin (Zêrîn)[83][84]
  24. Al-Hawl[85]

According to the Jerusalem Post, the YPG controls the city of Afrin along with its 360 surrounding villages.[86]

See also[]

References[]

  1. ↑ "PYD Announces Surprise Interim Government in Syria’s Kurdish Reg". Rudaw. http://rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/13112013. Retrieved 24 October 2014. 
  2. ↑ "Al-Qaeda suffered heavy losses against the Kurdish forces". http://blogs.mediapart.fr/blog/maxime-azadi/220713/al-qaida-subit-de-lourdes-pertes-face-aux-forces-kurdes. Retrieved 24 October 2014. 
  3. ↑ "Internationalist Freedom Brigade Established in Rojava". Kurdish Question. 11 June 2015. http://kurdishquestion.com/index.php/kurdistan/west-kurdistan/internationalist-freedom-brigade-established-in-rojava.html. Retrieved 13 June 2015. 
  4. ↑ Moore, Harriet (11 June 2015). "OSINT Summary: Pro-Kurdish foreign fighters group established in Syria". Jane's Terrorism and Security Monitor. http://www.janes.com/article/52169/osint-summary-pro-kurdish-foreign-fighters-group-established-in-syria. Retrieved 13 June 2015. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Haras, Nicholas A. (24 October 2013). "The Battle for Syria’s Al-Hasakah Province". Combating Terrorism Center. http://www.ctc.usma.edu/posts/the-battle-for-syrias-al-hasakah-province. Retrieved 14 January 2014. 
  6. ↑ van Wilgenburg, Wladimir (13 December 2013). "Kurdish Strategy Towards Ethnically-Mixed Areas in the Syrian Conflict". Jamestown Foundation. http://www.refworld.org/docid/52aef0e34.html. Retrieved 14 January 2014. 
  7. ↑ http://www.france24.com/en/20151012-france-pm-valls-terrorists-have-no-passports-air-strikes-french-jihadists-syria
  8. ↑ "Syria rebels, Kurdish militia discuss cease-fire". 29 October 2012. http://edition.cnn.com/2012/10/29/world/meast/syria-kurdish-militia/index.html. Retrieved 29 October 2012. 
  9. ↑ "YPG and FSA launch joint military operations against Islamic State in northern Syria". ARA News. 13 September 2014. http://aranews.net/2014/09/ypg-fsa-launch-joint-military-operations-islamic-state-northern-syria/. Retrieved 14 September 2014. 
  10. ↑ "A new dialogue and collaboration in northern Syria between kurds and rebels". The Arab Chronicle. 5 March 2014. http://the-arab-chronicle.com/dialogue-collaboration-syria-kurds-rebels/. Retrieved 22 May 2014. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "The Tribal Factor in Syria's Rebellion". Fair Observer. http://www.fairobserver.com/article/tribal-factor-syria-rebellion. Retrieved 24 October 2014. 
  12. ↑ "ANALYSIS The Kurds and the Syrian Revolution". http://www.lb.boell.org/web/52-800.html. Retrieved 2 September 2012. 
  13. ↑ "Kurdish-jihadist fighting spreads in Syria". http://gulfnews.com/news/region/syria/kurdish-jihadist-fighting-spreads-in-syria-1.1211434. Retrieved 21 July 2013. 
  14. ↑ "YPG launches expansive operation against gang groups | ANF". En.firatnews.com. 2013-08-29. http://en.firatnews.com/news/news/ypg-launches-expansive-operation-against-gang-groups.htm. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  15. ↑ "Kurdish Commander: Jihadi Groups in Syria Have Hijacked FSA". 11 August 2013. http://rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/11082013. Retrieved 4 January 2014. 
  16. ↑ "Fighting erupts between Syrian rebels and Kurds". 1 November 2012. http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/fighting-erupts-between-syrian-rebels-and-kurds/2012/10/31/fedd811a-239e-11e2-92f8-7f9c4daf276a_story.html. Retrieved 4 January 2014. 
  17. ↑ Azizi, Bradost (6 February 2013). "Islamists Fighting Kurds in Syria Admit to Turkish Military Support". Rudaw. http://www.rudaw.net/english/news/syria/5716.html. Retrieved 10 February 2013. [dead link]
  18. ↑ Jabhat Al Nusra's new Syria The National, 15 December 2012
  19. ↑ "Military Skill and Terrorist Technique Fuel Success of ISIS". New York Times. 27 August 2014. http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/28/world/middleeast/army-know-how-seen-as-factor-in-isis-successes.html. Retrieved 21 October 2014. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Alessandria Masi (11 November 2014). "If ISIS Leader Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi Is Killed, Who Is Caliph Of The Islamic State Group?". International Business Times. http://www.ibtimes.com/if-isis-leader-abu-bakr-al-baghdadi-killed-who-caliph-islamic-state-group-1721638. Retrieved 9 May 2015. 
  21. ↑ "Al Huffington Post Algérie : Abou Khattab, kurde, jihadiste et chef des opérations du Daech contre Kobané". Al Huffington Post. http://www.huffpostmaghreb.com/2014/10/11/daech-abou-khattab-kobane_n_5969898.html. Retrieved 9 November 2014. 
  22. ↑ "Islamic State's commanders killed in Kobane - ARA News". ARA News. http://aranews.net/2014/11/islamic-states-commanders-killed-kobane/. Retrieved 4 March 2015. 
  23. ↑ "YPG Press Kit". https://www.facebook.com/notes/ypg/official-press-kit-ypg/916044638417133. Retrieved 31 July 2015. 
  24. ↑ Civiroglu, Mutlu (11 August 2013). "Kurdish Commander: Jihadi Groups in Syria Have Hijacked FSA". Rudaw English. http://rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/11082013. Retrieved 17 August 2013. 
  25. ↑ http://www.understandingwar.org/sites/default/files/AssadRegime-web.pdf
  26. ↑ https://twitter.com/sylezjusz/status/627886143128891392
  27. ↑ 122-148 in Ras al-Ayn [1][2][3][4][5][dead link] [6][7][8][9][10][11], 30 in Aleppo [12]
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 "YPG release balance sheet of war for 2013". Firatnews. 23 December 2013. http://en.firatnews.com/news/news/ypg-release-balance-sheet-of-war-for-2013.htm. Retrieved 23 December 2013. 
  29. ↑ "YPG releases balance-sheet of 2014: Nearly 5,000 ISIS members killed". BestaNûçe Bestanuce.com. http://www.bestanuce1.com/haber/160643/ypg-releases-balance-sheet-of-2014-nearly-5000-isis-members-killed&dil=en. Retrieved 24 January 2015. 
  30. ↑ The total number of casualties mentioned in the article as of 18 June 2013
  31. ↑ "CIA – The World Factbook". CIA. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.html. Retrieved 16 February 2012. 
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 http://remmm.revues.org/6481
  33. ↑ "The Silenced Kurds". Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/reports/1996/Syria.htm. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  34. ↑ "Minority Kurds struggle for recognition in Syrian revolt". 31 March 2012. http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2012/Mar-31/168622-minority-kurds-struggle-for-recognition-in-syrian-revolt.ashx#axzz21XpGFIlr. Retrieved 27 July 2012. 
  35. ↑ Brandon, James (21 February 2007). "The PKK and Syria's Kurds". Washington, DC: The Jamestown Foundation. http://www.jamestown.org/programs/gta/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=1014&tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=182&no_cache=1. Retrieved 1 February 2012. 
  36. ↑ Isseroff, Ami (24 March 2004). "Kurdish agony – the forgotten massacre of Qamishlo". MideastWeb. http://www.mideastweb.org/log/archives/00000231.htm. Retrieved 16 February 2012. 
  37. ↑ "Jailed Kurds on Syria hunger strike: rights group". 10 March 2011. http://www.ekurd.net/mismas/articles/misc2011/3/syriakurd291.htm. Retrieved 30 July 2015. 
  38. ↑ Khatib, Lina; Lust, Ellen (1 May 2014). Taking to the Streets: The Transformation of Arab Activism. JHU Press. p. 161. ISBN 1421413132. https://books.google.com/books?id=6Sh8AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA161&lpg=PA161&dq=qamishlo+protest+march+12,+2011&source=bl&ots=ORYo-JXMXG&sig=LzKtnTEU16F4Hb9tYF6JB6uMiyo&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAmoVChMIseCWtNSExwIVSRWSCh2dqAAr#v=onepage&q=qamishlo%20protest%20march%2012%2C%202011&f=false. Retrieved 31 July 2015. 
  39. ↑ "Many arrested in Syria after protests". Al Jazeera. 2 April 2011. http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2011/04/20114211257594538.html. Retrieved 18 December 2013. 
  40. ↑ Furuhashi, Yoshie (29 May 2011). "Syrian Kurdish Parties Boycott Syrian Opposition Conference in Antalya, Turkey". Monthly Review. http://mrzine.monthlyreview.org/2011/kb010611.html. Retrieved 13 November 2011. 
  41. ↑ "Most Syrian Kurdish Parties Boycott Opposition Gathering". Rudaw. 29 August 2011. http://www.rudaw.net/english/news/syria/3941.html. Retrieved 13 November 2011. [dead link]
  42. ↑ "Syrian Kurds Try to Maintain Unity". 17 July 2012. http://www.rudaw.net/english/news/syria/4964.html. Retrieved 27 July 2012. [dead link]
  43. ↑ "Syria: Massive protests in Qamishli, Homs". 19 May 2011. http://english.cntv.cn/program/newsupdate/20110519/103075.shtml. Retrieved 27 July 2012. 
  44. ↑ "Syrian Kurdish Official: Now Kurds are in Charge of their Fate". 27 July 2012. http://www.rudaw.net/english/news/syria/5010.html. Retrieved 30 July 2012. [dead link]
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 "More Kurdish Cities Liberated As Syrian Army Withdraws from Area". 20 July 2012. http://www.rudaw.net/english/kurds/4978.html. Retrieved 27 July 2012. [dead link]
  46. ↑ "After quiet revolt, power struggle looms for Syria's Kurds". Mobile.reuters.com. http://mobile.reuters.com/article/idUSBRE8A619520121107?irpc=932. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  47. ↑ "City of Derik taken by Kurds in Northeast Syria". 21 July 2012. http://en.firatnews.com/index.php?rupel=article&nuceID=4957. Retrieved 27 July 2012. 
  48. ↑ "Ban: Syrian regime 'failed to protect civilians'". 22 July 2012. http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/21/world/meast/syria-unrest/index.html?hpt=hp_t2. Retrieved 27 July 2012. 
  49. ↑ "Clashes between Kurds and Syrian army in the Kurdish city of Qamişlo, Western Kurdistan". 21 July 2012. http://www.ekurd.net/mismas/articles/misc2012/7/syriakurd542.htm. Retrieved 27 July 2012. 
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 "Armed Kurds Surround Syrian Security Forces in Qamishli". 22 July 2012. http://www.rudaw.net/english/news/syria/4984.html. Retrieved 27 July 2012. [dead link]
  51. ↑ "Fighting in Syria indicates Bashar Assad's end isn't imminent". 23 July 2012. http://www.charlotteobserver.com/2012/07/23/3400914/fighting-in-syria-indicates-bashar.html. Retrieved 27 July 2012. [dead link]
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 "Girke Lege Becomes Sixth Kurdish City Liberated in Syria". 24 July 2012. http://www.rudaw.net/english/news/syria/4992.html. Retrieved 27 July 2012. [dead link]
  53. ↑ "After Damascus attack, Syria vows to strike with 'iron fist'". CNN. 6 January 2012. http://www.cnn.com/2012/01/06/world/meast/syria-unrest/index.html. Retrieved 6 January 2012. 
  54. ↑ "Meet the YPG". Vice News. https://www.vice.com/read/meet-the-ypg. Retrieved 31 July 2015. 
  55. ↑ Davies, Wyre (27 July 2012). "Crisis in Syria emboldens country's Kurds". BBC News. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-19021766. Retrieved 3 August 2012. 
  56. ↑ "PYD Press Release: A call for support and protection of the peaceful establishment, the self-governed Rojava region | هيئة التنسيق الوطنية لقوى التغيير الديمقراطي". Syrianncb.org. 2012-02-24. http://syrianncb.org/2012/08/02/pyd-press-release-a-call-for-support-and-protection-of-the-peaceful-establishment-the-self-governed-syrian-kurdish-region/. Retrieved 2012-08-20. 
  57. ↑ "Syria – News". Peter Clifford Online. http://www.petercliffordonline.com/syria/. Retrieved 2012-08-20. 
  58. ↑ "Kurds take control in Syria's northeast". Syria Live Blog. Al Jazeera English. 12 August 2012. http://blogs.aljazeera.com/topic/syria/kurds-take-control-syrias-northeast. Retrieved 10 February 2013. 
  59. ↑ "Explosion at intelligence center in Qamishli, Syrian Kurdistan". Ekurd.net. http://www.ekurd.net/mismas/articles/misc2012/8/syriakurd594.htm#.UDCwArn2HQg.twitter. Retrieved 2012-08-20. 
  60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 Enzinna, Wes. "A Dream of Secular Utopia in ISIS' Backyard". NY Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/29/magazine/a-dream-of-utopia-in-hell.html?_r=0. Retrieved 27 November 2015. 
  61. ↑ Tax, Meredith. "The Revolution in Rojava". Dissent Magazin. http://www.dissentmagazine.org/online_articles/the-revolution-in-rojava. Retrieved 3 September 2015. 
  62. ↑ "Error: no |title= specified when using {{Cite web}}". https://ceasefiremagazine.co.uk/gender-justice-emerging-nation-impressions-rojava-syrian-kurdistan/. 
  63. ↑ "Error: no |title= specified when using {{Cite web}}". 
  64. ↑ "Error: no |title= specified when using {{Cite web}}". http://kurdishquestion.com/index.php/kurdistan/west-kurdistan/rojava-s-threefold-economy/675-rojava-s-threefold-economy.html. Retrieved 3 September 2015. 
  65. ↑ "Error: no |title= specified when using {{Cite web}}". http://roarmag.org/2015/03/rojava-kurdish-revolution-academic-delegation/. Retrieved 3 September 2015. 
  66. ↑ "Clashes Between Kurdish and Jihadist Militants". Syriareport.net. 2013-05-04. http://syriareport.net/clashes-between-kurdish-and-jihadist-militants/. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  67. ↑ Syria Report (2013-05-27). "Insurgents Declare War on Syria’s Kurds". Syriareport.net. http://syriareport.net/insurgents-declare-war-on-syrias-kurds/. Retrieved 2013-11-08. 
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 68.2 68.3 68.4 "Liberated Kurdish Cities in Syria Move into Next Phase". 25 July 2012. http://www.rudaw.net/english/news/syria/4999.html. Retrieved 28 July 2012. [dead link]
  69. ↑ "ENKS li Çil Axa li gel cemawerê xwe civiya" (in Kurdish). 5 September 2012. http://www.rudaw.net/kurmanci/rojava/15041.html. Retrieved 9 December 2012. [dead link]
  70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 "Tyrkisk avis: Kurdistan nr. 2 bliver dannet" (in Danish). 22 July 2012. http://jiyan.dk/2012/07/tyrkisk-avis-kurdistan-nr-2-bliver-dannet/. Retrieved 28 July 2012. 
  71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 "Rebels capture prison in northern Syria". 3 March 2013. http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/breaking-news/rebels-capture-prison-in-northern-syria/story-fn3dxix6-1226589437962. Retrieved 3 March 2013. 
  72. ↑ "Error: no |title= specified when using {{Cite web}}" (in Arabic). http://ciwanekurd.net/index.php/2011-12-26-15-15-44/5612-2012-09-05-00-20-32. Retrieved 5 September 2012. [dead link]
  73. ↑ 73.0 73.1 "SYRIA WITNESS: Aleppo Braces for Onslaught From Assad's 4th Brigade". 27 July 2012. http://middleeastvoices.voanews.com/2012/07/syria-witness-aleppo-braces-for-onslaught-from-assads-4th-brigade-69086/. Retrieved 29 July 2012. 
  74. ↑ "A tough liberation for Syria’s Kurds". 23 August 2012. http://globalpublicsquare.blogs.cnn.com/2012/08/23/a-tough-liberation-for-syrias-kurds/. Retrieved 9 December 2012. 
  75. ↑ "Qamişlo: Komeke ciwanan ya nêzîkî Yekîtî nîşandaneke leşkerî li dar dixe" (in Kurdish). 29 November 2012. http://www.kurdwatch.org/index?aid=2696&z=ku&cure=247. Retrieved 9 December 2012. 
  76. ↑ "Suriye ordusu YPG kuşatmasındaki Girzîro'yu bombaladı" (in Turkish). 20 January 2013. http://www.ozgur-gundem.com/index.php?haberID=62066&haberBaslik=Suriye%20ordusu%20YPG%20ku%C5%9Fatmas%C4%B1ndaki%20Girz%C3%AEro'yu%20bombalad%C4%B1&action=haber_detay&module=nuce. Retrieved 20 January 2013. 
  77. ↑ "Girzîro’da 31 asker daha YPG’ye teslim oldu" (in Turkish). 20 January 2013. http://www.anf.bz/index.php?rupel=nuce&nuceID=74517. Retrieved 20 January 2013. 
  78. ↑ "ISIS Attacks Tell Tamer". Peyamner News Agency (in Kurdish). 15 February 2015. http://www.peyamner.com/Kurdi/PNAnews.aspx?ID=355841. Retrieved 28 February 2015. 
  79. ↑ "Kurds seize two towns in Syria’s north-east". 10 November 2012. http://gulfnews.com/in-focus/syria/kurds-seize-two-towns-in-syria-s-north-east-1.1102531. Retrieved 10 November 2012. 
  80. ↑ "Thousands of Syrians flee into Turkey amid intense fighting". AP The Big Story. 14 June 2015. http://bigstory.ap.org/article/7f62663318e94589bf6097825914a088/kurds-nearing-key-islamic-state-held-syrian-border-town. Retrieved 15 June 2015. 
  81. ↑ Master. "YPG and rebels take full control on Tal Abiad city". Syrian Observatory For Human Rights. http://www.syriahr.com/en/2015/06/ypg-and-rebels-take-full-control-on-tal-abiad-city/. Retrieved 30 June 2015. 
  82. ↑ AFP (8 July 2015). "Syria Kurds hunt jihadists after retaking town near IS bastion". http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/syria-kurds-hunt-jihadists-after-retaking-town-near-is-bastion-115070801434_1.html. Retrieved 15 July 2015. 
  83. ↑ "Kurds cut key IS supply route in northern Syria: monitor". 27 July 2015. http://www.france24.com/en/20150727-kurds-cut-key-supply-route-northern-syria-monitor. Retrieved 27 July 2015. 
  84. ↑ "Syrian Kurds capture town from ISIS in north: activists". http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2015/Jul-27/308468-syrian-kurdish-ypg-militia-aided-by-us-led-airstrikes-takes-over-isis-held-town-of-sarrin-in.ashx. Retrieved 27 July 2015. 
  85. ↑ "Syrian Democratic Forces recapture key town near Iraqi border amid ISIS decline". ARA News. 14 November 2015. http://aranews.net/2015/11/syrian-democratic-forces-recapture-key-town-near-iraqi-border-amid-isis-decline/. Retrieved 15 November 2015. 
  86. ↑ "Kurdish muscle flexing". 14 November 2012. http://www.jpost.com/Features/InThespotlight/Article.aspx?id=291764. Retrieved 14 November 2012. 
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